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TEŞHİS Skip to content Hayvanlara, bitkilere, cansız ve soyut varlıklara insanlara ait özellikler nisbet etme anlamında edebiyat terimi.
1/2 Müellif: İSMAİL DURMUŞ Bölüme Git
Sözlükte “yükselmek, uzaktan görünmek” anlamındaki şuhûs kökünden türeyen teşhîs “bir şeyi belirlemek, diğerlerinden ayırt etmek” demektir. Aynı kökte…
2/2 Müellif: MELİHA YILDIRAN SARIKAYA Bölüme Git
TÜRK EDEBİYATI. Pek çok eski örneği bulunmakla birlikte müstakil olarak Batı edebiyatı retoriğinin etkisiyle Türk belâgatına girmiş edebî terimlerden …
Sözlükte “yükselmek, uzaktan görünmek” anlamındaki şuhûs kökünden türeyen teşhîs “bir şeyi belirlemek, diğerlerinden ayırt etmek” demektir. Aynı kökten gelen şahs “yüksekliği ve görüntüsü olan insan vb.nin uzaktan farkedilen karaltısı; kişi, insan” mânasına gelir (el-Muʿcemü’l-vasîṭ, “şḫṣ” md.). Teşhisin “kişileştirme, canlandırma” anlamı Arapça sözlüklerde yer almaz; terimin Batı edebiyatı terminolojisinin etkisiyle modern zamanlarda kullanılmaya başlandığı anlaşılmaktadır. Teşhisle aynı mânayı taşıyan tecsîm Arapça’da “büyütmek, irileştirmek” anlamında iken yine son dönemlerde cismden (beden, gövde) hareketle “cisim olmayan varlıkları cisimleştirme, somutlaştırma” mânasını kazanmıştır. Arapça’da “safranla boyamak” mânasına gelen tecsîd, cesed (cisim ve beden) kelimesinden türetilip “cisimleştirme, somutlaştırma”, aynı şekilde intâk kelimesi “konuşamayan varlıkları konuşturma” anlamında kullanılmıştır.
Söz konusu kavramlar Arap belâgatında istiare, özellikle istiâre-i mekniyye, istiâre-i tahyîliyye ve aklî mecaz başlığı altında incelenmiştir. Çünkü istiarelerle aklî mecazların oluşumu, eylemlerin gerçek öznesi ve ilgilisinin dışındaki şeylere isnat edilmesine veya onlarla ilişkilendirilmesine dayanır. Burada cansız ve soyut varlıklara cisimlerin, canlıların, insanların eylem ve sıfatlarının yüklenmesi ve bunların insanlar gibi konuşturulması etkin rol oynar. Eylemlerin, ilgilisi dışındakiler tarafından gerçekleştiriliyormuş gibi anlatılması bu yeni sanatların esası olduğu gibi kelimenin mecazî veya istiarî mânada kullanıldığının belirleyici karînesini teşkil eder. Nitekim, “Münafıklar hidayet karşılığında dalâleti satın alanlardır, fakat onların ticareti kâr etmemiştir” meâlindeki âyette (el-Bakara 2/16) “değişmek” anlamında istiare olan satın almak eylemiyle soyut kavramlar olan hidayet ve dalâletin ilişkilendirilmesi hem bunları alınır satılır eşya konumunda cisimleştirmiş, hem de satın almanın değişmek anlamında istiare sayıldığını belirleyen bir karîne teşkil etmiştir. Yine, “Ticaretleri kâr etmemiştir” ifadesindeki aklî mecazda soyut olan ticaret kâr ve zarar eden insan şeklinde kişileştirilmiştir. “Annene ve babana merhametle tevazu kanadını indir” âyetindeki (el-İsrâ 17/24) istiâre-i mekniyye ve istiâre-i tahyîliyye de tecsîm ve teşhis esasına dayanmaktadır. Soyut bir kavram olan tevazuun kuşa benzetilmesi ve kuşun ifadede açıkça değil örtülü biçimde geçmesi kapalı istiare oluşturmakta, tevazu kuş biçiminde canlı bir varlık şeklinde sunulmaktadır. Kuşun ayrılmaz parçası olan kanadın tevazua muzaf kılınmasıyla meydana gelen istiâre-i tahyîliyyede hayal gücü soyut tevazuu kanatları olan, kanat indiren muhayyel bir kuş biçiminde tecsîm ve teşhis etmektedir.
“Konuşma yeteneği bulunmayan hayvanları, bitkileri, cansız varlıkları ve soyut kavramları insan gibi konuşturmak” anlamına gelen intak sanatı da bu varlıkları insanlara benzetme esasına dayandığından istiareye dahildir. İntakın bulunduğu her yerde teşhis sanatı da mevcuttur. Çünkü varlığı konuşturabilmek için öncelikle ona insan kişiliği vermek gerekir. Teşhis ve intak usta sanatkârlar tarafından yapılırsa etkili bir sanat olur. Zira yazar veya şair bu sayede meselâ gökyüzündeki melekleri ve ruhları aşağıya indirir, mezarlarında beyaz kefenli ölüleri ve çürümüş kemikleri yeryüzüne çıkarır. Böylece onların görüldüğü, onlarla görüşülüp konuşulan bir hayal âlemi kurar.
Araplar’da tecsîm, tecsîd ve teşhise dair örnekler Câhiliye şiirine kadar uzanır. İmruülkays b. Hucr bir beytinde, soyut olan uzun geceyi çöktüğü yerde gerinip duran ve bir türlü kalkmak bilmeyen deve şeklinde somutlaştırmıştır. Züheyr b. Ebû Sülmâ savaşı sağıcısını ısıran deve, eğri dişleriyle insanlara hırlayan köpek figürü ile canlandırmıştır (İbnü’l-Mu‘tez, s. 81, 82). Kadim zamanlardan beri dar bir çerçevede devam eden teşhis, II. (VIII.) yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren yenilikçi şairlerin elinde geliştirilen ve genişletilen bir sanata dönüşmüştür. Beşşâr b. Bürd’den itibaren Ebû Nüvâs, Müslim b. Velîd ve Ebû Temmâm gibi şairler, geleneksel şiir anlayışına tepki olarak “bedî‘” (yeni tarz şiir) adını verdikleri bir şiir türü ortaya koymuştur. Bunların geleneksel şiire getirdiği yenilik eski şiirde doğal bir akış içinde bulunan teşbih, istiare, kinaye, cinas, tevriye, teşhis ve tecsîm gibi söz süslerine mânayı anlaşılmaz kılacak ve onu boğacak şekilde yoğunluk vermeleridir. Özellikle Hasan b. Bişr el-Âmidî gibi gelenekçi şiir eleştirmenlerinin Ebû Temmâm’ın şiirlerine yönelttiği eleştiriler, onun yeni tarz bir şiir anlayışıyla sıkça başvurduğu tecsîm ve teşhis sanatlarında yoğunlaşmaktadır. Ebû Temmâm’ın şiirlerinde “gece elbisesi, yeşil tepeli ahlâk, karanlığın giysisi, zaman giysisi, erdem küpeleri, gecenin kulağı, toprağın saçları, bulutun saçları, yaş döken çiğ taneleri, iyiliğin ciğerini serinletmek, asık suratlı kış, güneşin yanağı, günlerin kalpleri, hüzün parmakları” gibi tecsîd, tecsîm ve teşhis örneklerini Âmidî, Araplar’ın istiare geleneğine ters ve ilgilerinin uzak olduğunu ileri sürerek uygunsuz, çirkin ve yanlış bulmuştur. Öte yandan Hatîb et-Tebrîzî, eleştirisinde daha ince bir ifade kullanıp Ebû Temmâm’ın istiarede özgün bir yönteminin bulunduğunu söylemiştir. İbnü’r-Rûmî, şiir anlayışı bakımından umumiyetle gelenekçi çizgide olmasına rağmen şiirlerinde tabiat unsurlarının teşhis, tecsîm ve intakına ilişkin örneklerin çokluğu, onun hassas yapısı ve her şeyde uğur-uğursuzluk gören inanç dünyasıyla ilgili görülmüştür. Gelenekçi anlayışa karşı çıkan Şevkī Dayf, Ebû Temmâm’ın tecsîm ve teşhis örneklerinin alışılmamış yeni ve özgün istiare kalıpları sayıldığını belirtmiş, Batı edebiyatı belâgatçılarının yaptığı gibi tecsîm ve teşhisin Arap belâgatında da istiareden ayrılmasını ve özgün bir yapı olarak ele alınmasını önermiş, nitekim Aristo’nun teşhisi “eşyayı gözaltına koyma, görselleme kuvvesi” şeklinde özel bir isimle andığını kaydetmiştir (el-Fen, s. 232-239).
Arap edebiyatında ilk örnekleri III. (IX.) yüzyılda görülen ve edebî amaçlarla kurgulanan münazara türü de teşhis ve intak sanatlarına dayanır. “Müfâhare” genel başlığıyla anılan bu tür eserlerde yer-gök, kılıç-kalem, çiçekler-taşlar gibi öğeler karşılıklı konuşturulup tartışma içine sokulur. Her biri kendisinin üstün ve yararlı, karşı tarafın zayıf ve eksik yanlarını ortaya koymaya çalışır. Tesbit edilebildiği kadarıyla bu türün ilk örneği Câhiz’in Müfâḫaretü’l-misk ve’r-remâd adlı risâlesidir (er-Resâʾil, I, 246 vd.). İbn Ebû Tâhir, Ebû Mesleme el-Mecrîtî ve İzzeddin İbn Gānim gibi müelliflerin de bu konuda eserleri vardır (bk. MÜNÂZARA).
Ahlâk dersi vermek, erdemleri öğretmek, ahlâk dışı davranışların kötülüğünü göstermek amacıyla kurgulanan, hayvanların, kuşların ve diğer varlıkların dilinden anlatılan hikâye ve masallar da (fabl) teşhis ve intak sanatına dair ilginç örnekler oluşturur. Batı’da Ezop’la başlayan (m.ö. VII-VI. yüzyıl) bu türün ilk örnekleri Doğu dünyasında milâttan sonra III. yüzyılda bir Hint kralının oğlunu ve diğer şehzadeleri eğitmek, erdemleri öğretmek için filozof Beydaba’ya yazdırdığı Kelîle ve Dimne ile görülür. Hayvanların dilinden ahlâkî öğütler içeren eser önce Farsça’ya ve İbnü’l-Mukaffa‘ tarafından Farsça’dan Arapça’ya tercüme edilmiştir (bk. KELÎLE ve DİMNE). Arap edebiyatında manzum fabl türünde ilk eserler Ebân b. Abdülhamîd’in Kelîle ve Dimne’siyle şair İbnü’l-Hebbâriyye’nin Kitâbü’ṣ-Ṣâdiḥ ve’l-bâġım’ıdır.
Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’deki aklî mecazların, istiarelerin ve özellikle istiâre-i mekniyye ile istiâre-i tahyîliyyelerin çoğu tecsîm ve teşhise dayanır. Bunlar cansızlarla soyut varlıkların insanlara benzetilmesi esasına dayanır: Rüzgârın ve suyun öfkeden kabarması (el-Hâkka 69/5-6, 11), günün kısır olması (el-Hac 22/55), cehennemin öfkeden parçalanması, haykırması (el-Mülk 67/7-8), öfkenin susması (el-A‘râf 7/154), duvarın yıkılmak istemesi (el-Kehf 18/77), göklere, yere ve dağlara emaneti üstlenmelerinin teklif edilmesi ve onların bunu kabul etmemesi (el-Ahzâb 33/72), arzın sırtı ve omuzları (Fâtır 35/45; el-Mülk 67/15), arzın suyunu yutması (Hûd 11/44), arzın süslenmesi (Yûnus 10/24), güneş, ay, yıldızlar, dağlar, ağaçlar ve hayvanların secde etmesi (el-Hac 22/18) gibi. Bunlardan başka hak, bâtıl, ilim, nur, âyet, korku, ölüm, amel gibi soyut kavramların gelmesi-gitmesi, inmesi-çıkması gibi anlatımlar bu çerçeveye dahildir. Yine Kur’an’da cehennem, karınca, hüdhüd, yer-gök, eller, ayaklar ve derilerin konuşması teşhis ve intak örneklerindendir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Câhiz, er-Resâʾil (nşr. Abdülemîr Ali Mühennâ), Beyrut 1988, I, 246 vd.; İbnü’r-Rûmî, Dîvân (nşr. Ahmed Hasan Besec), Beyrut 1415/1994, I, 22-23; İbnü’l-Mu‘tez, el-Bedîʿ (nşr. M. Abdülmün‘im Hafâcî), Beyrut 1410/1990, s. 76-108; Âmidî, el-Muvâzene (nşr. M. Muhyiddin Abdülhamîd), Kahire 1363/1944, s. 125, 196, 228, 233-237, 244, 253; Hatîb et-Tebrîzî, Şerḥu Dîvâni Ebî Temmâm (nşr. Râcî el-Esmer), Beyrut 1414/1994, I, 93, 96, 112, 114-215, 218-219, 278, 290, 332, 334, 397, 420; II, 124, 171-172, 290; İzzeddin İbn Abdüsselâm, el-İşâre ile’l-îcâz fî baʿżı envâʿi’l-mecâz, İstanbul 1313/1895, s. 84, 89, 90, 92-103, 104-112; Şürûḥu’t-Telḫîṣ, Kahire 1937, IV, 150-165; Şevkī Dayf, el-Fen ve meẕâhibühû fi’ş-şiʿri’l-ʿArabî, Kahire 1976, s. 207-212, 232-239; İsmail Durmuş, Câhiliyye Şiirinde ve Kur’an’da Teşbîh (doktora tezi, 1988), Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, s. 305-336, 373-374; Sâlih b. Abdullah el-Hudayrî, eṣ-Ṣûretü’l-fenniyye fi’ş-şiʿri’l-İslâmî, Riyad 1414/1993, s. 243-253; Necati Kara, “Ebân b. Abdülhamîd”, DİA, X, 65-66; İlhan Kutluer, “İbn Gānim, İzzeddin”, a.e., XIX, 502; İnci Koçak, “İbnü’l-Hebbâriyye”, a.e., XXI, 82.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2011 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 40. cildinde, 565-566 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
TÜRK EDEBİYATI. Pek çok eski örneği bulunmakla birlikte müstakil olarak Batı edebiyatı retoriğinin etkisiyle Türk belâgatına girmiş edebî terimlerden biri olduğu kabul edilmektedir. Teşhisle varlıklar kişileştirilerek yeni imajlar ve kimlikler kazanır. Tahayyüle bağlı sanatlardan olan teşhis genelde intak ile bütünlük kazanır, dolayısıyla her intak sanatında teşhis de bulunur. Nâmık Kemal’in “Baykuş Sesi” adlı manzumesindeki, “Serilip hâk-i hakārette vatan can veriyor / Yetişin son nefesimdir, gelin imdâda diyor / Sevgili vâlidemiz âkıbet elden gidiyor / Vatanın bağrına düşman dayadı hançerini / Yok imiş kurtaracak bahtı kara mâderini” kıtası hem teşhis hem intak sanatına örnektir. İlk mısrada canlı varlıklarla ilgili olan “can vermek” fiili vatan için kullanılarak teşhis yapılmakta, vatanın, “Yetişin son nefesimdir” diye imdat istemesiyle intak ortaya konmaktadır. Divan şairleri teşhisi intak dolayısıyla daha sık kullanırlar. Hayâlî Bey’in, “Manṭıḳu’ṭ-ṭayr okutur bülbül çemen etfâline / Şerheder her faslın anun nitekim Attâr gül” beyti bir teşhis örneğidir. Bülbülü kuş dilini öğreten hoca, çiçekleri öğrenciler şeklinde teşhis eden şair hoş kokulu gülü bu dersi şerheden hoca diye nitelemektedir. İstiare, mecâz-ı mürsel veya teşbih gibi sanatlar da insana ait özellikler insan dışı varlıklar için kullanıldığında kısmen teşhis içerir. Bu sanatlarda temel alınan karşılaştırma ve benzetmeler insan dışındaki varlık ve kavramlar arasında da yapılabilmektedir. Teşhise konu olan varlık ise yalnız insana benzetilebilir. Nâbî’nin, “Gül gülşeni terkeyledi sohbet sana kaldı / Bülbül yine meydân-ı muhabbet sana kaldı” beytinde geçen “terketmek” ve “sohbet etmek” insana ait fiillerdir. Şair burada gülün gül bahçesini terkettiğini, artık bülbülün de sohbet edebileceğini söyleyerek teşhis sanatı yapmaktadır.
Ta‘lîm-i Edebiyyât’tan önceki edebiyat nazariyesine dair eserlerde ve klasik belâgat kitaplarında teşhis terimi yer almadığı gibi başka bir adlandırma ile de geçmez (Saraç, s. 101). Tâhirülmevlevî ve Ali Nihad Tarlan teşhisin bir tür kapalı istiare olduğunu söylemektedir (Edebiyat Lügatı, s. 171; Edebî San’atler, s. 70). Teşhis ve intakı “mecazın en etkili türleri” diye tanımlayan Recâizâde Mahmud Ekrem bunların gerçek sanatkârlar tarafından kullanıldığında söze bir değer katabileceğini, aksi takdirde anlatımda basitliğe düşüleceğini ileri sürer. Bazı şairlerin teşhis ve intaka sıkça başvurmamaları biraz da bu tehlikeden kaçınmak içindir. Abdülhak Hâmid’in, “Bilmem neye bu diyâr muğber / Gönlüm gibi her civâr muğber / Burc u beden ü hisâr muğber / Deryâ muğber, kenâr muğber” mısraları teşhis sanatının güzel örneklerindendir. Gücenme insanın niteliklerindendir. Şair burada teşhis sanatıyla kişisel duygusunu etrafta gördüğü her şeye, kaleye, burca, denize ve sahile teşmil etmektedir. Teşhis divan şairlerinden sonra da kullanılmaya devam edilmiş ve bazan bir şiirin bütünü teşhis sanatına dayalı olarak yazılmıştır. Faruk Nafiz Çamlıbel’in “Çoban Çeşmesi” şiirinde ırmaklarla çeşmenin ağlaması, suyun ve çeşmenin konuşması bir teşhis örneğidir: “Derinden derine ırmaklar ağlar / Uzaktan uzağa çoban çeşmesi / Ey suyun sesinden anlayan bağlar / Ne söyler şu dağa çoban çeşmesi.”
Fars şiirinde teşhis sanatının ilk örnekleri IV. (X.) yüzyıldan itibaren Mencîk Tirmizî’nin şiirlerinde görülmeye başlanmıştır. Daha sonra Menûçihrî Dâmegānî teşhisi tabiatı tavsif ederken kullanmıştır. Fars edebiyatında birçok şair teşhis örnekleri ortaya koymuş, Sa‘dî-yi Şîrâzî, Mevlânâ Celâleddîn-i Rûmî ve Hâfız-ı Şîrâzî gibi büyük şairlerin yanında son dönemde Muhammed Şefî‘ Kadekānî, Sührâb-ı Sipihrî gibi şairler bu sanata rağbet etmiştir. Teşhis sanatı kahramanları hayvan olan fabl ve hikâyelerde önemli bir unsurdur. Merzübân b. Rüstem’in Farsça yazdığı, Sadreddin Şeyhoğlu’nun Türkçe’ye çevirdiği Merzübânnâme ile Nev‘îzâde Atâî’nin yine Farsça’dan Türkçe’ye tercüme ettiği Tûtînâme ve Şeyhî’nin Harnâme’si bu tür eserlerdendir. Mevlânâ’nın hayvanların dilinden anlattığı çok sayıda hikâyesinde Kelîle ve Dimne’nin etkisi görülür. Bazı mevlidlerin sonunda yer alan deve, geyik, güvercin ve ejder hikâyeleri sembolik hayvan hikâyeleridir. Günümüzde bu tarz bir sanattan yararlanarak çocuklar ve gençler için fabller yazılmaktadır. Bunlar arasında Samed Behrengî’nin Mâhî-yi Siyâh-i Kûçûlû, Ulduz u Kelâğhâ ve Keçel-i Kefterbâz; Nâdir İbrâhimî’nin Ḫânevâde-i Büzürg ve Düşnâm’ı ile Celâl Âl-i Ahmed’in Sergüzeşt-i Kenduhâ’sı zikredilebilir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Recâizâde Mahmud Ekrem, Ta‘lîm-i Edebiyyât, İstanbul 1299, s. 287-289; Ali Nihad Tarlan, Edebî San’atler, İstanbul 1947, s. 68-70; Tâhirülmevlevî, Edebiyat Lügatı, İstanbul 1971, s. 171; M. Kaya Bilgegil, Edebiyat Bilgi ve Teorileri-Belâgat, İstanbul 1989, s. 209-211; M. Rızâ Şefîî Kedkenî, Ṣuver-i Ḫayâl der Şiʿr-i Fârsî, Tahran 1370 hş., s. 149-156; M. A. Yekta Saraç, Klâsik Edebiyat Bilgisi Belâgat, İstanbul 2000, s. 101-102; Mezdek Enûşe, “Teşḫîṣ”, Ferhengnâme-i Edeb-i Fârsî (nşr. Hasan Enûşe), Tahran 1381 hş., II, 361-363; Hasan Aktaş, Klasik Türk Şiirinde Edebî Sanatlar, Edirne, ts. (Yort Savul Yayınları), s. 120-125; İskender Pala, Ansiklopedik Dîvân Şiiri Sözlüğü , İstanbul 2007, s. 452-453; Menderes Coşkun, Sözün Büyüsü Edebî Sanatlar, İstanbul 2007, s. 75-79; İsa Kocakaplan, Açıklamalı Edebî Sanatlar, İstanbul 2008, s. 178-183.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2011 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 40. cildinde, 566-567 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.