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TÜRKÇÜLÜK Skip to content XIX. yüzyılda Osmanlı Devleti’nde entelektüel düzeyde başlayan, daha sonra siyasal ve ideolojik boyut kazanan hareket, pantürkizm.
Gülhane Hatt-ı Hümâyunu’nun ısdarından sonra devlet ricâlinin bir Osmanlı milleti oluşturulması yolundaki çabalarına rağmen Osmanlı tebaası arasında milliyetçi ve proto-milliyetçi hareketler hız kazandı. Bir genelleme yapılırsa imparatorluğun hıristiyan tebaası içinde Yunanlılar, Sırplar, Bulgarlar, Makedonlar ve Ermeniler arasında milliyetçilik cereyanları güç kazanıp bu fikirleri savunmak amacıyla siyasî örgütler kurulurken müslümanların çoğunlukta olduğu Araplar ve Arnavutlar’da da kültürel proto-milliyetçilik hareketleri hızlanmaya başladı. İlk grupta yer alan milliyetçi hareketler, zaman içinde imparatorluktan ayrılıp bağımsız devletler kurma fikrini ciddi bir seçenek halinde tartışırken ikinci gruptaki akımlar daha ziyade Osmanlılık kimliğinin sınırlarını zorlamayı, Arap-Osmanlı, Arnavut-Osmanlı benzeri karma kimlikler oluşturmayı hedefledi. Türkçülük bu ikinci sınıflamadaki hareketlerden biri olarak ele alınabilir. Ancak Arap ve Arnavut proto-milliyetçiliklerinden farklı biçimde imparatorluğun devamını sağlamayı birincil amaç kabul eden Türkçü hareket Osmanlı kimliğindeki Türklük vurgusunu güçlendirmeye çalıştı. Aynı şekilde Gagauzlar gibi çok küçük gayri müslim topluluklara sahip Türk nüfus için etnik kimliği ön plana çıkaran bir hareket olmamış, Araplar ve Arnavutlar’da görüldüğü gibi farklı dinlere mensup bireyleri birleştirici bir özellik taşımamıştır. Bu sebeple Türkçülük hareketi müslüman unsurlarda başlayan proto-milliyetçi fikir ve siyaset akımları içinde en geç başlayanlardan birini teşkil etmiştir.
Joseph de Guignes’in dört ciltlik Histoire générale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mogols et des autres Tartares occidentaux, &c. avant et dépuis Jésus-Christ jusqu’à present (Paris 1756-1758) ve Arthur Lumley Davids’in A Grammar of the Turkish Language with a Preliminary Discourse on the Language and Literature of the Turkish Nations: Copious Vocabulary, Dialogues, A Collection of Extracts in Prose and Verse, and Lithographed Specimens of Various Ancient and Modern Manuscripts (London 1832) benzeri eserler (ilk eser daha sonra Mustafa Kemal’i derinden etkileyecektir) XVIII. yüzyılın başlarında Türklük tanımının yeniden kavramsallaştırılmasına yol açtı. Genç yaşta ölen Davids’in kitabı 1836 yılında annesi tarafından Fransızca’ya çevrilerek II. Mahmud’a ithaf edildi. Osmanlı Devleti’nde kitabın bazı baskılarında başlığına eklenen Kitâbü ilmi’n-nâfiʿ fî tafsîli sarf ve nahv-i Türkî adıyla şöhret kazanan eserin bilhassa dilciler ve Ali Suâvi gibi entelektüeller tarafından ilgiyle okunduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Davids’in farklı Türk kavimleri için Tatarlar yerine ortak bir kelime olarak Türk adının kullanılmasını teklif etmesi, kitabına değişik Türk lehçelerinden örnekler ekleyip bunların aynı dil grubuna mensup olduğunu vurgulaması Osmanlı entelektüel çevrelerinde tartışmalara yol açtı. Daha sonra Joseph de Guignes’in eserinden faydalanan Mustafa Celâleddin Paşa, Les turcs anciens et modernes başlıklı kitabıyla (Istanbul 1869) ciddi bir entelektüel tartışmayı başlattı. Asıl adı Konstanty Polklozic-Borzêcki olan Mustafa Celâleddin başarısız 1848 ihtilâli sonrasında Osmanlı Devleti’ne sığınmış ve müslüman olduktan sonra Türkler’in etnik kökenleri üzerine çalışmalar yapmıştı. Mustafa Celâleddin Paşa, Türkler’in aslında Avrupalı sayıldığını ve Tuoro-Aryan ırkından geldiğini, Türkçe ile Latince ve diğer Avrupa dilleri arasında bağlantılar bulunduğunu ileri sürmüştü. Onun bu fikirleri 1930’lu yılların Türk tarih ve dil tezleri üzerinde etkili oldu. Tanzimat döneminin sonuna gelindiğinde Batı kaynaklarının tesiriyle Türkler’in etnik kökeni, dilleri ve diğer ırklarla ilişkileri üzerine tartışmalar başlamıştı. Yurt içinde Tercümân-ı Ahvâl ve Basîret gazetelerinde, yurt dışında Yeni Osmanlı yayınlarında meselâ Hürriyet ve Ulûm dergilerinde kültürel Türklüğe gösterilen ilgi olarak yorumlanabilecek atıflar yapıldı. Ali Suâvi 1873’te Paris’te basılan Hîve (Le Khiva) adlı eserinde benzer görüşleri dile getirdi. 1868’de İstanbul’da neşredilmeye başlanan Terakkî gazetesi başlığının sonunda “Türk gazetesi” ibaresini koymuştu. Ayrıca basında Türk ve Osmanlı Devleti için Türkistan benzeri kelimeler yaygın biçimde kullanılıyordu. Ancak bunların henüz rüşeym halindeki bir kütürel hareketi dile getiren ilk ifadeler olduğunu belirtmek gerekir. Daha sonra Ali Suâvi’nin bir Türkçü lider şeklinde tanıtılması gibi çabalar, erken Cumhuriyet döneminde resmî ideoloji haline gelen Türk milliyetçiliğinin geriye dönük tarih yazımının ürünü olarak mütalaa edilmelidir.
Kültürel Türkçülüğün hız kazanması II. Abdülhamid döneminde gerçekleşti. Bu dönemde Macar Türkologları’nın artan çalışmaları, Orhon yazıtlarının Vilhelm Thomsen tarafından 1893 yılında okunması gibi gelişmeler Türklük araştırmalarına hız kazandırdı, bu da Osmanlı entelektüelleri üzerinde derin etkiler meydana getirdi. Bu devirdeki Türkçülük hareketinin ilginç bir özelliği de Rus müslümanlarının tesiridir. Bu alanda bilhassa Gaspıralı İsmâil Bey’in çabalarına ve 1883’ten itibaren Bahçesaray’da Kırım Türkçesi’yle yayımlanarak Osmanlı entelektüelleri tarafından okunan Tercüman gazetesinin oynadığı role değinmek gerekir. Kültürel Türkçülük hareketindeki önemli bir aşama da Süleyman Hüsnü Paşa’nın Târîh-i Âlem adlı kitabının 1876’da yayımlanmasıdır. Joseph de Guignes’den etkilenen Süleyman Paşa, değişik Türk kavimlerinin tarihini ayrıntılı biçimde ele alarak Osmanlı tarih yazımında genel kabul gören tarih metodolojisinin oldukça dışına çıkıyordu. Kitabın Mekteb-i Harbiyye’de okutulması etkisini daha da arttırdı. Tarihe bu yaklaşım, daha sonra Mizancı Murad ve özellikle David-Léon Cahun’dan etkilenen Necib Âsım’ın (Yazıksız) tarih çalışmalarıyla daha da ileri götürülerek Türk tarihini yeni bir çalışma alanı haline getirdi. Bu dönemde Ahmed Vefik Paşa, Şemseddin Sâmi dil alanında, Ahmed Midhat Efendi popüler kültür düzeyinde Türkçü fikirlerin yayılmasına ciddi katkılarda bulundular. Aynı şekilde Bursalı Mehmed Tâhir, Türkler’in İslâm medeniyetinin yükselişindeki rolünü ortaya koyarken daha sonra “millî şair” unvanını alacak olan Mehmet Emin (Yurdakul) edebiyat alanında Türkçülüğün gelişmesine öncülük etti. Kendilerini “Türk gazetesi” diye niteleyen Mîzan ve İkdam başta olmak üzere basın, Osmanlı Devleti dışında yaşayan Türkler, Türkler’in etnik kökenleri ve Macarlar gibi kavimlerin Türkler’le aynı kökene dayandıkları gibi konuları ele almak, ayrıca Macar Türkologları’nın yazılarında geçen “turan” ve “turanî” kelimelerini kullanmak suretiyle kültürel Türkçülüğün tartışılmasında ciddi rol oynadı. Ancak dönemin sansürü yüzünden siyasî Türkçülük konusunda dışa akseden önemli bir tartışma yaşanmadı.
Siyasal Türkçülük tartışması, Jön Türk basını diye adlandırılan ve yurt dışı merkezlerde basılarak Osmanlı vilâyetlerine gizlice sokulan dergilerle başladı. Jön Türk muhalefetinin ilk yıllarında bilhassa Tunalı Hilmi’nin yazdığı makalelerde imparatorluk içinde Türk toplumunun hâkim millet olarak kabul edilmesinin gerekliliğine işaret edilmesi, Türkler için övücü sıfatlar kullanılması dışında ciddi bir kültürel Türkçülüğe rastlanmaz. Esasen bu dönemde Jön Türklüğün önemli yayın organlarına, Osmanlı ve Meşveret gibi Osmanlılık ideolojisine veya İslâmî ilkelere atıfta bulunan isimler verilmişti. 1902’de Paris’te düzenlenen Osmanlı Hürriyetperveran Kongresi’nin ardından bu toplantıda Sabahaddin Bey yanlılarının ve Kürtler dışındaki Türk olmayan temsilcilerin oluşturduğu çoğunluğun izleme kararı aldığı siyasete karşı çıkan Ahmed Rızâ Bey ve kendilerini “icraatçılar” diye adlandıran küçük Jön Türk organizasyonları kültürel ve siyasal Türkçülük alanında ciddi bir hareket başlattılar.
1902 Hürriyetperveran Kongresi’nden sonra Ahmed Rızâ Bey yanlıları ile icraatçılar tarafından gerçekleştirilen koalisyonun yayın organı olarak neşredilen Şûrâ-yı Ümmet gitgide Osmanlıcılık ideolojisinin sınırlarını zorlayan bir Türkçülüğe kayarken bilhassa Mısır Jön Türklüğü siyasî Türkçülüğün ilk önemli ürünlerini ortaya koymaya başladı. Süleyman Vâhid ve Tarsusîzâde Münif beylerin yayımladığı Anadolu dergisi bu alanda ilk örneklere yer verdi. Ancak bizzat siyasî Türkçülük ideolojisini yaymak için Kahire’de neşredilen ilk gazete Türk adını taşıyordu. Şerefeddin Mağmûmî, Necmeddin Ârif, Celâleddin Ârif, Ali Kemal ve Esad beyler tarafından 5 Kasım 1903 tarihinde yayımlanmaya başlanan derginin ilk sayısındaki “Türk” makalesi mecmuanın “Türkler’in muhâfaza-i hukūku, tehzîb-i ezhânı, tenşît-i efkârı için te’sis olunduğu”nu belirttikten sonra Türkler’in Macarlar gibi kavimlerle akrabalığını ve diğer Doğu kavimlerine üstünlüğünü vurguluyordu. Dergiye gelen çok sayıda mektup, Türk ’ün yayımının Rus müslümanları arasında da ilgiyle karşılandığını ortaya koymaktadır. Yazarlarının Oğuz, Özbek, Tuğrul, Turgut, Kuneralp, Uluğ gibi takma adlar kullandığı dergide diğer Osmanlı anâsırı için kaleme alınan açık mektuplarda Türkler’in ırkî üstünlüklerini belirten ifadelere yer verildi. Türk , bu sebeple diğer Osmanlı unsurlarına mensup entelektüellerle ciddi polemiklere girdi. Bunların belki de en önemlisi el-Menâr ve Reşîd Rızâ ile olanıdır. Derginin siyasî Türkçü tezleri ve bilhassa İslâmiyet’in Türkler’in gerilemesine yol açtığı anlamı çıkarılabilecek yorumlar, 1905 yılı Kasım ayında İslâmiyet ile Türkçülüğün sentezini yapmaya çalışan bir grubun dergiyi daha radikal Türkçülüğü benimseyen milliyetçilerden tasfiyesiyle sonuçlandı. Ancak Hüseyin Âlî Bey liderliğindeki yeni idareciler 1906 yılının Haziranında dergiyi yeniden eski neşir heyetine bırakmak zorunda kaldı. Dergi 1907 Kasımında kapanıncaya kadar siyasî Türkçülüğün gelişmesine büyük katkı sağladı.
Yusuf Akçura’nın “Üç Tarz-ı Siyâset” başlıklı çalışmasının Türk gazetesinde yayımlanması (nr. 24, 14 Nisan 1904 vd.) bir tesadüf eseri değildir. Akçura, Osmanlı Devleti’nin önündeki seçenekleri sıralarken bunların panislâmizm, Osmanlıcılık ve ırk esasına dayanan Türk milliyetçiliği olduğunu belirtiyor, son alternatifin bunlar arasında en anlamlısı sayıldığına işaret ediyordu. Zaven ve Vartouhie Nalbandyan’ın Turtsiia i panturanizm adlı risâlelerinde, Akçura’nın kitabının Türk milliyetçiliği ve turancılık alanında komünist manifestonun Marksizm üzerindeki rolüne benzer bir etki yaptığını söylemeleri yerinde bir tesbittir. Ali Kemal ve Ahmed Ferid (Tek) beylerin Akçura’nın tezine karşı verdikleri cevaplar tartışmayı daha da ateşlendirdi ve siyasal Türkçülüğü imparatorluğun temel entelektüel tartışmalarından biri haline getirdi.
Yusuf Akçura, Türk dergisine yazan eski İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti üyelerinden biriydi. 1905 yılı sonbaharından itibaren Bahâeddin Şâkir ve Nâzım beyler muhalefeti yeniden örgütleyip 1906’da Osmanlı Terakkî ve İttihat Cemiyeti adı altında tekrar teşkilâtlandırdıklarında Akçura gibi pek çok Türkçü bu yeni örgütlenmenin sempatizanı veya üyesi haline geldi. Bu çok önemli bir gelişmeydi, çünkü Türk herhangi bir siyasal örgütlenmenin yayın organı değil bir entelektüel yayındı. Osmanlı Terakkî ve İttihat Cemiyeti’nin siyasî Türkçülüğe yönelmesi, bu ideolojinin temel Jön Türk örgütlenmesinin fikrî dayanağı haline gelmesi anlamını taşıyordu. Bu alanda işaret edilmesi gereken bir diğer önemli etken de Osmanlı Terakkî ve İttihat Cemiyeti’nin yurt dışı şubelerinin Bulgaristan, Romanya, Kafkasya, Girit, Kıbrıs gibi imparatorluktan ayrılmış ya da muhtariyet kazanmış bölgelerinde kurulması ve buralarda daha yaygın olan Türkçü fikirlerin bu şubeler aracılığıyla cemiyet merkezinde etki yaratmasıydı. 1905 Rus İhtilâli sonrasında oluşan göreceli özgür ortamda Âzerîler, Tatarlar gibi Türk toplumlarının yayın faaliyetine hız vermeleri de bu gelişmeye etkide bulundu. Ağaoğlu Ahmet, Hüseyinzâde Ali (Turan), Gaspıralı İsmâil gibi Osmanlı Terakkî ve İttihat Cemiyeti’yle ilişkiyi sürdüren liderlerin Hayat , İrşad , Füyûzât , Tercümân-ı Ahvâl-i Zaman gibi dergilerde ileri sürdükleri fikirler (Şûrâ-yı Ümmet ve Türk gibi dergiler bunlardan bazılarını kısmen yayımlamıştır), Türkçülüğün Jön Türklüğün temel örgütlenmesi tarafından içselleştirilmesinde önemli rol oynadı. Osmanlı Terakkî ve İttihat Cemiyeti’nin gizli muhaberatında “Adriyatik denizinden Çin hududuna kadar vâki memleketler baştan aşağı yalnız bir din ile mütedeyyin değil, bir lisan ile de mütekellim Türk cinsi ile meşguldür. Afrika ve Hindistan’dan sarfınazar yalnız Türk cinsinden olanlar ittihat etseler dünyanın en şevketli hükümetini teşkile muktedir olurlar” gibi ifadelerin kullanılması, Hüseyinzâde Ali Bey’in emeli “Adriyatik denizinden Çin’e kadar olan memâlikten bir ‘Türk ittihadı’ husule getirmek” olan bir entelektüel şeklinde takdimi bu fikirlerin etkisini ortaya koymaktadır. Osmanlı Terakkî ve İttihat Cemiyeti, 1907 Eylülünde merkezi Selânik’te bulunan Osmanlı Hürriyet Cemiyeti ile birleşince gerçekleştireceği ihtilâlin merkezini Makedonya olarak belirledi. Burada girişilecek bir ihtilâl hareketi muhtelif anâsır ve bilhassa Arnavutlar’ın ciddi desteğine dayanacaktı. Bu sebeple 1907 sonu ile 1908 İhtilâli arasındaki dönemde Osmanlı Terakkî ve İttihat, Türkçü çizgisini terkederek yeniden Osmanlıcılığı ön plana çıkaran bir propaganda yürütmeye başladı. Bu amaçla söz konusu dönemde yeniden kullanılan beyannâmelerdeki “Türk” kelimeleri “Osmanlı” ile değiştirildi ve diğer anâsırı suçlayan ifadeler sansürlendi.
1908 yılı Aralık ayında bir kısmı II. Abdülhamid döneminde yurt içinde, bir kısmı Jön Türk olarak Türkçülük hareketinde öncü roller oynamış Ahmed Midhat Efendi, Necib Âsım, Mehmet Emin, Yusuf Akçura, Ahmed Ferid beylerin önderliğinde kurulan Türk Derneği, Türkçülüğün yeni dönemde de entelektüel hayata damgasını vuracak bir ideoloji olacağının ilk işaretiydi. 1911-1912 yıllarında kurulan Türk Yurdu Cemiyeti ve Türk Ocağı ise iktidardaki İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti’nden aldığı destekle Türkçülüğün entelektüel tartışmada güçlenmesini sağladı. Türk Ocağı, erken Cumhuriyet dönemine uzanan bir süreçte etkisi görülen bir kültürel örgütlenme olma özelliği taşır. Türkçülük, İttihat ve Terakkî Merkez-i Umûmîsi’nde görev yapan Ziya Gökalp ve Hüseyinzâde Ali beyler gibi entelektüeller aracılığıyla iktidar partisinin ideolojisini derinden etkiledi.
Türk Yurdu , Yeni Mecmua gibi dergiler, Şûrâ-yı Ümmet ve Tanin gibi gazeteler tarafından yoğun biçimde tartışılan kültürel ve siyasal Türkçülük, edebiyat alanında da etkili oldu ve Genç Kalemler (Selânik) gibi dergi ve yayınlarla bu alanda ciddi bir değişimi gerçekleştirdi. Emile Durkheim’den etkilenen Ziya Gökalp, Türkçülüğün sosyolojik bir çerçeveye oturtulmasınada, Ahmet Ağaoğlu, Yusuf Akçura ve Hüseyinzâde Ali beyler Osmanlı Devleti dışında yaşayan Türkler’i de kapsayan bir Türk dünyası ve Türklük fikrinin kavramsallaştırılmasında, Ömer Seyfeddin ve Mehmet Emin beyler sadeleştirilmiş dil ve Türkçü edebiyat tezlerinin oluşturulmasında öncü roller oynadılar. Bunların yanı sıra Türkçülük, Alman tarihçi okulundan etkilenerek 1913 sonrasında yürürlüğe konan millî iktisat siyasetiyle ekonomik tezler de geliştirdi, kapitülasyonlara karşı tavır aldı, yabancı devletler ve muhtelif Osmanlı anâsırına yönelik boykot hareketlerini örgütledi.
1913 yılına gelindiğinde Türkçülük sosyolojik, ekonomik, kültürel tezleri olan, yaygın basın desteğine sahip, iktidar partisi tarafından içselleştirilen bir ideoloji haline gelmişti. İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti’nin Türkçülüğü benimsemesi ciddi sorunları da beraberinde getirdi. Çok uluslu bir imparatorluğu idare etme durumunda olan İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti ileri gelenleri Türkçülük ile Osmanlıcılık ideolojisini bağdaştırmaya çalıştılar ve Türkler’in millî bir ruh kazanarak imparatorluğu yeniden canlandırmalarının bütün Osmanlı anâsırı için yararlı olduğunu savundular. Ancak diğer Osmanlı unsurları Türkçülük ideolojisine oldukça mesafeli yaklaştı ve ciddi tenkitler dile getirdi. 1912-1913 Balkan savaşlarının Osmanlıcılık ideolojisine vurduğu ağır darbe, Türkçülüğün entelektüel düzeyde daha da güçlenmesine sebep olmakla birlikte bu ideolojinin Türk tarihçiliği tarafından 1912-1913 sonrasında ortaya çıktığının savunulması yanlıştı. Balkan Savaşı kayıplarının yol açtığı şiddetli milliyetçi tepkiler ve harb-i umûmîye giriş, İttihat ve Terakkî’nin içselleştirdiği Türkçülüğün resmen sahip çıkılan Osmanlıcılık’tan çok daha etkili olması sonucunu doğurdu. 1914 sonrasında Rusya’nın dağılacağı yönünde beslenen ümitler, evvelce kültürel boyutta tartışılan pantürkizm ve turancılık fikirlerinin siyasal boyutta tartışılması neticesini doğurdu.
II. Meşrutiyet’in ardından Türkçü hareketi, temel ideolojik çerçevesi yaygın kabul görmekle birlikte türdeş olmaktan uzak kalmıştır. Özellikle bu ideolojiyi İslâm ile bağdaştırma konusunda 1903-1907’de Türk dergisini çıkaran entelektüellerinkine benzer fikir ayrılıkları yaşanmıştır. Babanzâde Ahmed Naim Sebîlürreşâd mecmuasında neşrettiği ve daha sonra bir risâle halinde yayımladığı “İslâm’da Da‘vâ-yı Kavmiyyet” başlıklı değerlendirmesinde Türkçüler’i “hâlis Türkçüler” ve “Türkçü-İslâmcılar” diye ikiye ayırırken bu farklılığa işaret etmiştir. İlginç olan taraf, Ziya Gökalp başta olmak üzere hareketin önde gelen ideologlarının Türk ’ün 1903-1905 dönemindeki neşriyatına benzer şekilde İslâmiyet’i Türklüğün gerilemesinin temel sebeplerinden biri olarak gören tezler ileri sürmemeleridir. Ömer Seyfeddin gibi materyalist düşünürleri hikâyelerinde kahramanlaştıran Türkçüler dahi açıktan böyle tezler ortaya atmamıştır. Aksine Ziya Gökalp 1913’te Türk Yurdu ’nda neşrettiği “Türkleşmek, İslâmlaşmak, Muâsırlaşmak” başlıklı çalışmasında, bilhassa İslâm Mecmuası ’nda ve Yeni Hayat kitabında Türkleştirilmiş bir İslâm, “Türk-İslâm harsı” tezini işlemiştir. Bu yayınlarda İslâm’ın Türkleştirilmesi kadar reforma tâbi tutulması fikri de işlenmiştir. 1918 Mondros Mütarekesi bir anlamda Türkçü düşüncenin iktidarı kaybetmesi anlamına geliyordu. Ancak parçalanan bir imparatorluktan Türk ulus-devletine geçiş sürecinde Türkçülük tabii olarak hayli etkili oldu. Her ne kadar 1919-1922 döneminde Millî Mücadele liderleri İslâmî bir lisan kullansalar da bunların önemli bölümü Türkçü harekette yer almış ya da ona sempati duymuş kimselerdi. Bunun yanı sıra Sovyet liderleriyle iyi ilişkiler sürdürme çabası da Türkçü ve turancı tezlerin açıkça dile getirilmesini önlemişti. Buna rağmen 1922 sonrasında Türkçülük yeni bir ivme kazanmıştır. Türkçülük düşüncesi erken Cumhuriyet döneminin ideolojik temellerinden birini oluşturmakla birlikte bilhassa Türk tarih tezinin gelişimi sonrasında yeni bir şekil almış ve resmî Türk milliyetçiliğine dönüşen ideoloji İslâmiyet’i Türk ırkının gelişmesinin engellerinden biri olarak öne sürmüştür. Bu dönemin tezleri, antropolojik temelleri istisna edilirse Türk dergisinin erken dönem neşriyatıyla ciddi benzerlikler gösterir.
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Ziya Gökalp, Türkleşmek, İslâmlaşmak, Muâsırlaşmak , İstanbul 1918.
a.mlf., Yeni Hayat , İstanbul 1918, tür.yer.
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Tarık Zafer Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasal Partiler , İstanbul 1984, I, 414-438.
Şerif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought , Syracuse 2000, s. 250.
M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902-1908 , Oxford-New York 2001, s. 64-73, 352-357.
el-Menâr , VI/24, Kahire 1904, s. 954-958; VII/2 (1904), s. 3-4; XII/12 (1910), s. 913.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2012 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 41. cildinde, 551-554 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.