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VASAL Skip to content Daha güçlü bir devletin koruması altına girme ve ona bağlanma durumunu anlatan siyaset terimi.
Aslı Keltçe olup Ortaçağ Latincesi’nde vasallus (vasall ) şeklinde kullanılmıştır. Ortaçağ Avrupası’nda, timâr (feudum) sahibi olarak efendisine tâbi olma durumunu niteleyen feodal bir anlam kazanmıştır. Kendinden daha güçlü bir beyin korumasını kazanan vasal, bunun karşılığında savaşlarda efendisinin yanında yer almak gibi silâhlı ya da diplomatik hizmetleri yerine getirmek zorundaydı. Vasallık ilişkisi devletler arasında da mevcuttu. Papalık, Kutsal Roma Germen İmparatorluğu, Macar ve Polonya krallıkları dışında Ortaçağ Avrupa güçler hiyerarşisinde her hükümdar başka bir hükümdarın vasalı durumundaydı. Vasal kavramı sadece Ortaçağ Avrupası’nın politik ilişkileri temelinde kullanılsa da antik dönemden modern çağa kadar devletler arasında farklı seviyelerde kendini gösteren bir bağlılığa da işaret etmektedir. Roma İmparatorluğu, merkezî otoritenin güçlükle sağlandığı uzak topraklarında egemenliğini vasal hükümdarlar vasıtasıyla yürütebilmiştir. Yehuda Krallığı bu konuda dikkat çekici bir örnek teşkil eder. Sömürgecilik döneminde türlü çekincelerden dolayı doğrudan egemenlik altına alınmamış ülkelerde de benzer bir yapıya rastlanır. Bu durumlarda boyun eğdirilmiş devlet sömürgeci gücün koruması altına alınıyor, ancak yerel egemen sınıfın hükmü de kısmen devam ediyordu. XX. yüzyılda büyük devletlerin kendilerine bağladıkları ülkeler hakkında “uydu (peyk) devlet” gibi vasallık ilişkisini anımsatan başka bir kavram kullanılmıştır. Bütün bunların ışığında genelde askerî ve ekonomik yönden üstün büyük güçlerin geçmişte olduğu gibi günümüzde de çeşitli yönlerden kendisine bağımlı ve denetim altında tuttuğu ülkelerle bir tür vasallık ilişkisi içinde bulunduğunu söylemek mümkündür.
Osmanlı Devleti’nin devlet sistemi üzerine çalışan araştırmacılar, fetih öncesi yapılarını herhangi bir şekilde koruyan ya da yerel hânedanların varlıklarını sürdürdüğü vilâyetleri doğrudan merkezin idaresi altına alınmış bölgelerden kesin şekilde ayırmaktadır. Konuyla ilgili Avrupa kaynaklarında Osmanlı Devleti’ndeki uygulamalar için vasal kavramı kullanılmış olsa da bunun yerini zamanla Osmanlı terminolojisinde “haraçgüzâr” tanımına atfen vergi ödeyen devlet tabiri almaya başlamıştır. Ancak bu tabir, hiçbir vergi mükellefiyeti bulunmayan müslüman ya da hıristiyan devletler için de yaygın biçimde geçmektedir. Osmanlı terminolojisinde vasal kelimesi için önceleri “tebaa, tebaiyyet” kelimeleri kullanılmış ve Osmanlı Devleti vasal ülkeleri her durumda devletin bir parçası olarak görmüştür. Boyun eğdirilmişliği, bazı durumlardaki vergi zorunluluğunun yanı sıra istenen hizmetlerin ve sultanın vasal hükümdar üzerindeki efendilik hukukunun belirlenmesi vurguluyordu. Osmanlılar tarafından vasallık ilişkisinin temeli en başta muhatap devletin sultanın koruması altında bulunmasıydı. Bu durumu ifade etmek üzere resmî söylemde “himaye, inâyet ve emn ü emân” kavramları kullanılmıştır.
Osmanlı Devleti’nin yayılma döneminde vasal olarak boyun eğdirme fetih yöntemlerinden birini teşkil etmekte ve tamamen ele geçirilip ortadan kaldırılacak bir yeri bu sürece hazırlamaktaydı. Vasal himayenin ne zaman başladığı kesinlikle bilinmemektedir. Erken dönemden başlayarak XVII. yüzyılın sonuna kadar Osmanlılar’ın hıristiyan vasalı olarak Bizans (1362-1453), Bulgar Çarlığı (1365-1393), Sırp Despotluğu (1389-1444), Eflak (1394-1877) ve Boğdan Voyvodalığı (1455-1877), Macar Krallığı (1526-1541), Erdel Prensliği (1541-1699), Ukrayna Kazak Devleti (1650-1654, 1669-1676) sayılabilir. Aynı zamanda Kafkasya’da zaman zaman Migreli Kartli, Gürcü prenslikleri vasal devletler haline geldi. Osmanlı Devleti’ne özellikle Anadolu beyliklerinden pek çok müslüman vasal devletin bağlandığı ayrıca belirtilebilir. 1444’te Karamanoğlu II. İbrâhim Bey ile II. Murad arasında yapılan barış antlaşması metninin günümüze ulaşması sayesinde Karamanoğulları Beyliği’nin statüsü açık biçimde belirlenebilmektedir. Burada her yıl yardımcı birlikler gönderme, dostuna dost, düşmanına düşman olma gibi tâbilik şartları yer almaktaydı. Ancak vergi konusuna temas edilmemiştir.
Giray Hânedanlığı’nın Osmanlı hânedanlığı gibi soylu bir köke dayanmasından hareketle Osmanlı politikasında Kırım hanlarının ayrı bir yeri vardır. Günümüze ulaşan belgelerden anlaşıldığı kadarıyla sultanlar ve hanlar arasında açık bir vasallık ilişkisi bulunuyordu. Hanın sultan tarafından tayin edilmesi düzeninin ne zaman başladığıyla ilgili kesin veriler yoktur. XVI. yüzyılın sonuna kadar hanlar veliahtlarını (kalgay) belirleyebiliyorlardı; yapılan bu tayinler berât-ı hümâyunla Osmanlı hükümdarınca tasdik ediliyordu. XVII. yüzyıldan itibaren hanların tayini Kırım soylularının seçimiyle değil Osmanlı sarayının isteğiyle gerçekleşme aşamasına gelindi. Bugüne kadar gelen en eski berat 1628 yılında Canbeg Giray hakkındadır. Hanlık beratı muhatabın müslüman olması sebebiyle dinî unsurlara ağırlık verilerek kaleme alınmıştır. Osmanlı Devleti’nce Canbeg Giray’a verilen tahsisatın 1.100.000 Kefe akçesi olarak tesbiti çok önemlidir. Kefe gümrük mukātaasından ayrılan bu miktar değişse de ödeme mükellefiyeti Kırım Hanlığı’nın ortadan kalkmasına kadar sürdü. XVIII. yüzyılda Osmanlılar’ın genişlemesinin ardından Şirvan bir süreliğine bu devletin egemenliğini tanıdı. Şirvan hanının tayini ve yeni vasal devletin ilişkisi Kırım örneğindeki gibi düzenlenmiştir. Mekke emîrlerini de bu kategoride anmak gerekir. Mekke elçileri ilk defa, Yavuz Sultan Selim’in Mısır seferi esnasında (1517) Osmanlı egemenliğini kabul ettikleri anlamına gelecek biçimde saygı gösterdiler. Mekke emîrlerinin tayinleri XVI ve XVII. yüzyıllarda sade ve kısa tayin belgeleriyle (berât-i şerif, menşûr-i emâret) gerçekleşti. Bu belgeler XVIII ve XIX. yüzyıllara gelindiğinde daha uzun ve ağdalı bir yapıya kavuştu. Emîr idarî işlerde kullanılacak memurları bizzat belirlerdi ve adı Kırım hanlarının durumuna benzer şekilde hutbelerde sultandan sonra anılırdı. Tunus, Cezayir, Trablusgarp ve XIX. yüzyılın ilk yarısında Mısır, daha sonraları hükümranlıklarını veraset hukukuna dayandırmış yerel hânedanlara sahip vasal devletler haline geldiler. Cezayir’de “dayı” olarak adlandırılan beylerin ve paşaların egemenliklerinin pekiştirilmesi için geniş haklar talep ettikleri belgelerden takip edilebilmektedir. Tunus’taki Türk kökenli hükümdarlık ailesinin (Hüseynîler) kurucusu Hüseyin b. Ali Türkî’nin beylerbeyiliğe tayin edildiği 1709’dan itibaren sultanlık beratlarını incelemek mümkündür. Aile uzun süre Tunus üzerindeki egemenliğini devam ettirdi.
Vasal bir statü içinde bazı yerel aile ve aşiretler sancak beyi rütbesinde Osmanlı hükümdarından tayin mektubu alabiliyordu. Diyarbekir, Şehrizor, Van, Çıldır, Gürcistan gibi doğu vilâyetlerindeki yerel Kürt ailelerinin gönüllü olarak sultanın egemenliğini kabul ettikleri bilinmektedir. Böylece veraset hukukuna dayalı sancak beyi makamında kalıp idarî hâkimiyetlerini sürdürüyorlardı (yurt, ocak, mülk, hükümet). Bu tip sancaklar bulundukları bölgenin beylerbeyileri denetimi altındaydı. Veraset hukukuna dayalı sancaklar yıllık vergi (sâlyâne) ödüyorlardı. Osmanlı Devleti bu düzeni pek çok şekilde uyguladı. Meselâ Yemen’de Osmanlı vasalı Şeyh Mutahhar öldüğünde sancağın başına 1575’te oğlu Abdurrahman tayin edilmişti. Beratında toprağın veraset yoluyla bırakılabileceği ve hakların babadan oğula geçtiği belirtilmişti.
Hıristiyan vasallara gelince Galata, Raguza (Dubrovnik) ve Nakşa (Naxos) civarında yer alan adaların durumu dikkat çekicidir. Galata’nın Cenevizliler’in egemenliği altında bulunan kısmı İstanbul’un fethi sırasında Osmanlı egemenliğini kabul etti. Bu döneme kadar Bizans egemenliğini tanımamış olan Galata idaresi Fâtih Sultan Mehmed’e başvurarak bir ahidnâme ile şimdiye kadar elde ettikleri haklarının devam ettirilmesi hususunda garanti aldılar. Nakşa Dukalığı’nın durumu farklılık göstermektedir. Prensliği Venedikliler, Bizans’tan kopardıkları Ege adaları vasıtasıyla XIII. yüzyılın başında kurdular. 20 Aralık 1564 tarihinde Prens Giacomo IV. Crispo adına düzenlenen berat yılda belirli bir vergi ödenmesini, Osmanlı uyruğu dışındakilerin adalara yerleşemeyeceğini, limanların düşman gemilerine ve korsanlara kapatılacağını öngörmekteydi. II. Selim’in tahta geçmesinden sonra Nakşa Dukalığı’nın başına zengin bir yahudi olan Yasef Nasi’nin tayin edildiği bilinmektedir. Osmanlı Devleti’ne hizmetleri karşılığında Caspar Graziani de 1619’da Boğdan Voyvodalığı’na atanmasından önce 1618’de Nakşa prensi unvanını kullandı.
Vasallık ilişkisi içindeki Sakız (Chios) adası 1454’te önce Osmanlılar’a vergi ödeyen Cenevizliler’in egemenliği altındaydı. 1475’ten sonra Adalar denizinde Ceneviz’in tek sömürgesi olarak Sakız kalmıştı. Vergisi de 1566’daki Osmanlı egemenliğinin başlangıcına kadar aynen sürmüştü. Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman, Ekim 1559’a gelindiğinde bir ahidnâme ile adada yaşayan beylerin ayrıcalıklarını güçlendirdi. Belge, daha önceki zamanlarda yapılan savaşların ardından kurulan dost ilişkilerinin padişah tarafından devam ettirilmek istendiğini belirtiyordu. Diğer bir örnek olan Dubrovnik’in Osmanlılar’la ilişkileri 1365 yılına kadar geri gider. 1358’den beri şehir Macar krallarının egemenliği altındaydı. Osmanlı Devleti’nin sağladığı imtiyazlar için yaklaşık 1440’tan itibaren düzenli biçimde yıllık vergi ödenmesine başlandı. Bunun dışında ahidnâmeler Osmanlı limanlarında ödenmesi gereken ticarî gümrük vergilerini de düzenliyordu. Erken döneme ait ahidnâmelerin orijinal örneklerinin önemli bir kısmı kayıp durumdadır. En eski tarihli ahidnâme 1430 yılına aittir. Yüzyıllarca devam eden Dubrovnik vasallık ilişkisi XIX. yüzyılın başlarına kadar sürdü. Eflak ve Boğdan, Balkan hıristiyan vasal devletlerine örnek ülkeler olarak değerlendirilse de voyvodaların tayinleri hakkında günümüze az sayıda belge ulaşmıştır. Eflak 1394’ten beri vergi ödüyordu, dolayısıyla bu dönemden itibaren Osmanlı vasalı haline geldi. Boğdan 1377 yılında vergi ödemeye başlasa da düzenli biçimde vergi verip Osmanlı egemenliğini tanıması 1455’te gerçekleşti. Boğdan’ın orijinal örneği Varşova Arşivi’nde bulunan ilk ticarî antlaşması 1456 tarihlidir. Voyvoda Petru Aron, sultanla yaptığı antlaşma doğrultusunda Akkirman tüccarlarının Edirne, Bursa ve İstanbul’da ticaret yapabilme hakkını elde etti. II. Mehmed ve Stefan cel Mare arasında akdedilmiş bir ahidnâme metni bugüne ulaşmıştır.
Osmanlılar’la Macar Krallığı’nın ilişkisi 1526 öncesine kadar eşit tarafların ilişkisi şeklinde devam etti. Osmanlı egemenliğini tanıyan ilk Macar Kralı János Szapolyai için Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman’ın gönderdiği ileri sürülen ahidnâmenin Polonya-Osmanlı barış antlaşması metninden teşkil edilmiş sahte bir belge olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Bununla beraber ölen Szapolyai’nin oğlunun sultan tarafından kral tayin edildiğini ve o zamana kadar hiç talep edilmemiş yıllık 50.000 altın istendiğini belirten ahidnâmenin 1540 yılında hazırlanmış Macarca kopyası elde bulunmaktadır. Macaristan’ın ve Erdel Prensliği’nin Osmanlı döneminden (1526-1699) kalma vasallık ilişkisinin ana kaynakları olan otuz bir belge halen mevcuttur. Erdel prensleri Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman zamanından başlayarak birer ahidnâme ile başa geçtiler. Bu belgeler Eflak ve Boğdan’a verilen beratlarla büyük benzerlik göstermekle beraber metnin inşası ve isimlendirmesi oldukça farklıdır. Bu tip belgelerin orijinal, kopya ve o dönemde kaleme alınmış Macarca ve Latince çevirilerinden on üç kadarı günümüze ulaşmıştır.
Bugünkü Ukrayna topraklarında yaşayan Kazaklar’ın Osmanlılar’la ilişkisi değerlendirildiğinde, Kazak Hatmanı Boğdan Hmelnitski’nin 1648’de Polonya’ya karşı ayaklanmasının ardından vasallık statüsü kazandığı görülür. XVI. yüzyılın sonlarında Polonya Kralı İstván Báthori’den aldıkları imtiyaz mektubu sayesinde Kazaklar, Ukrayna topraklarında iltimaslı bir hukuka sahip oldular, buna karşılık başta Tatarlar’a karşı olmak üzere askerî hizmetleri yerine getirmeleri gerekiyordu. Hatman Boğdan Hmelnitski bu imtiyazların devam etmesi için baş kaldırdı ve Polonya aleyhine Kırım Hanlığı, Moskova, Erdel, İsveç ve Osmanlı Devleti ile anlaşmaya çalıştı. 1650 baharında veya daha önce hem elçilik heyeti hem mektup vasıtasıyla Bâbıâli’nin askerî desteğini talep etti, aynı zamanda sultana bağlılığını bildirdi. Tatarlar’la imzalanan Kazak antlaşması dışında sultanla vasal arasındaki ilişkiyi belirleyen bir belgenin olup olmadığı tartışmalı bir konudur. 1651 Şubat-Martında yazılan bir padişah mektubundan Kazak hatmanının ahidnâme talep ettiği açıkça anlaşılmaktadır. Bunda antlaşmanın şartları yer alıyordu. Osmanlılar bir Kazak elçilik heyetinin gönderilmesini ve durumun iyice açıklanmasını, talep edilen antlaşmayı uygulamaya koyma şartı olarak ileri sürdüler. Hatman Hmelnitski’den sonra Petro Doroşenko sultanın desteğini sağlamak için daha büyük adımlar attı. Bunun neticesinde hem orijinali hem de sûreti mevcut hatman tayiniyle ilgili 1-10 Muharrem 1080 (1-10 Haziran 1669) tarihli berat kaleme alındı. Bu belge ile Petro Doroşenko üç Kazak kabilesinin (Sarıkamış, Barabaş ve Potkalı) hatmanı tayin edildi ve egemenliği altındaki topraklar sancak statüsünde kendisine devredildi. Belgede Eflak ve Boğdan’da olduğu gibi Osmanlı korumasını Kazaklar’ın da talep ettiği açıkça görülür. Diğer hıristiyan vasallara nazaran Kazaklar’ın koruma için vergi vermemeleri kayda değer bir farklılıktır. 1682’de İmre Tököli’nin Orta Macar kralı tayin edilmesi sırasında aldığı beratla Doroşenko’nun beratı neredeyse kelimesi kelimesine birbirine benzemektedir. Sultanın desteği ve yine sultan tarafından garanti edilen hükümdarın tahtındaki konumu dışında beratlarda padişahla vasal arasındaki ilişki ayrıntılı biçimde anlatılmamaktadır. Macar örneği, beratta görülen bu eksikliğin ahidnâme ile tamamlandığını göstermektedir.
Osmanlı Devleti’nin Kartli ya da Karadağ (Montenegro) gibi daha başka vasal devletleri de olmuştur. Osmanlılar, müslüman ve gayri müslim halkları farklılık gözetmeden merkeze bağlayan bir idarî sisteme sahipti. İmparatorlukta yer alan vasal devletlerin ve ayrıcalıklı grupların düzenleri hayli karmaşık bir yapılanmayı yansıtmaktadır. Bu sistemle yurt dışından gelen tüccarlara, Venedik, Ceneviz, Fransa, İngiltere, Hollanda gibi devletlerin tüccarlarına, bunların ticarî depolarına ve konsolosluklarına berat örneğine dayanarak hazırlanmış ticarî sözleşmelerle imtiyazlar tanınmış, bunlar bağımsız birlikler halinde idarî sisteme dahil edilmiştir. Bu çerçevede Osmanlı Devleti’nin yerel, cemaate dayalı özerk yapılar “yığın”ı aslında homojen bir yapılanma arzetmekteydi. Osmanlıların Balkanlar’dan çekilişi esnasında, yeniden doğan ve özgürlük talep eden milletlere benzer çözümler sunarak vasallık statüsü önermesi bir rastlantı değildir; ancak bir süre sonra vasallık hukukunun garanti edilmesi bu milletlere yeterli gelmeyecektir.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2012 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 42. cildinde, 531-534 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.