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SORUMLULUK Skip to content
Türkçe sormak fiilinden türetilen yeni bir kelime olan sorumluluk (Ar. mes’ûliyyet) hukukta “uyulması gereken bir kurala aykırı davranışın hesabını verme, tazminatla yükümlü tutulma, işlenmiş bir suçun gerektirdiği cezayı çekme” ve daha özel kullanımıyla “alacaklının hakkını elde edebilmesi için el koyacağı mal varlığının hukukî durumu” anlamlarına gelir. Fransızca’da résponsabilité, İngilizce’de liability veya responsibility kelimeleriyle ifade edilen ve klasik fıkıh literatüründe kullanılmayan bu kavram, Batı hukuku düşüncesinin etkisiyle modern hukuk ve fıkıh eserlerinde bir terim olarak yer almıştır.
Âyet ve hadislerde “sorumlu” mânasında mes’ûl kelimesi yanında aynı kökten türeyen “sorguya çekilme, sorumlu tutulma” anlamındaki fiiller sıkça geçer (M. F. Abdülbâkī, el-Muʿcem, “sʾel” md.; Wensinck, el-Muʿcem, “sʾel” md.). Ehliyet şartlarını taşıyan kişilerin din, ahlâk ve hukukun yüklediği görevlerden dolayı sorumlu tutulmaları bu alanların temel ilkelerinden olup insanın görevlerinden dolayı sorumlu tutulmaması halinde kanunlar, kurallar, buyruk ve yasaklar bütün gücünü ve önemini yitirir (bk. VAZİFE). Gerek Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de gerekse hadislerde bu ilkenin önemi üzerinde durulmuştur (meselâ bk. el-A‘râf 7/6; en-Nahl 16/93; el-İsrâ 17/34, 36; el-Furkān 25/16; el-Ankebût 29/13; el-Ahzâb 33/15; et-Tekâsür 102/8; Buhârî, “Cumʿa”, 11; Müslim, “İmâre”, 20; Ebû Dâvûd, “İmâre”, 1; Tirmizî, “Ḳıyâmet”, 1; Müsned, VI, 371).
Ahlâk âlimlerine göre dünyada sorumluluk duygusu taşıyan tek varlık insandır. Diğer varlıklarda bulunmayan akıl ve iradeye sahip olan insan kendine özgü inancı, değer yargıları ve yaşama tarzıyla bir şahsiyettir. Bu sebeple onun dinî, ahlâkî, içtimaî ve hukukî bakımdan doğru yolu seçmesi istenir ve bu hususlarda sorumlu tutulur. İnsanın iradeli davranışları üzerinde hüküm veren başlıca üç otoriteye göre üç türlü sorumluluk bulunduğu kabul edilir. 1. Vicdanî (ahlâkî) sorumluluk. Olumsuz sebeplerle yaratılışı (fıtrat) bozulmamış her insan, ruhî yapısında yer alan ve yerine göre kendisini takdir eden veya suçlayan vicdanın otoritesini hisseder. “Müftüler sana fetva verse de sen yine vicdanına danış” (Dârimî, “Büyûʿ”, 2); “Kötülük senin içine sıkıntı veren şeydir” (Müslim, “Birr”, 14) gibi hadisler vicdanî sorumluluğun önemini ifade eder. 2. İçtimaî sorumluluk. İslâmiyet kişinin hayatını kendisinde başlayıp kendisinde biten bir olay olarak görmemiş, bir yandan bireyi toplum karşısında sorumlu kılarken bir yandan da topluma insanların iyiliği uğruna çaba harcama sorumluluğu yüklemiştir. Bu tür sorumluluğu denetleyip değerlendiren otorite bireyi kuşatan sosyal çevredir. 3. Dinî sorumluluk. İnsanı aşan en yüksek kudret sahibi ilâhî otorite tarafından belirlenen bu tür sorumluluk inanma ihtiyacından doğup diğer iki sorumluluk çeşidinin eksikliğini tamamlar. Dinî şuurun zayıfladığı toplumlarda gözlenen ahlâkî düşüş, kalplerden âhiret kaygısının ve Allah korkusunun silinmesi durumunda ahlâkî ve içtimaî sorumlulukların da çöküşünün kaçınılmaz olduğunu göstermektedir (Çağrıcı, III, 1298-1300). Sorumluluk için insan olmak yeterli olmayıp bu konuda aranan şartlar ahlâk ve hukukta geniş biçimde incelenmiştir (bk. TEKLİF).
Tarihî Süreç. Batı’da gerek borçlar hukuku gerekse ceza hukuku alanlarında sorumluluk düşüncesi farklı aşamalardan geçmiştir. İlkçağ’larda alacaklı borçlunun şahsına el koyup onu köle edinme, hatta öldürme yetkisine, belirli bir zarara uğrayan kişi de intikam alma ve fâile aynı şekilde zarar verme hakkına sahip kabul ediliyordu. Bu katı sistem giderek yerini birleşik sisteme bırakmıştır. Birleşik sistemde zarar veren kişi belli bir meblağ karşılığında mağdurun öç alma hakkını satın alarak sorumluluktan kurtuluyordu. Bu sistemin uygulanması başlangıçta tarafların rızalarına bağlıyken devlet gücünün artmasıyla zorunlu hale gelmiştir. Modern hukuk, özel sorumluluklar sistemi yerine genel bir sebebe dayalı kusur sorumluluğunu geliştirmiştir. Kusur sorumluluğu, 1804 tarihli Fransız Medenî Kanunu’nun 1382. maddesiyle getirilen önemli yeniliklerden biridir (Deschenaux – Tercier, s. 1). Bu alanda ulaşılan son aşama, kusur sorumluluğu yanında objektif sorumluluk veya sebep sorumluluğu diye anılan bazı sorumluluk durumlarının kabul edilmesidir. Objektif yani kusura dayanmayan sorumlulukta kişi, ahlâk yönünden kınanacak hiçbir hatası olmamasına rağmen sebep olduğu zararı gidermekle yükümlüdür. Bu tür sorumluluğun doğması için sorumluluğun bağlandığı davranış veya olgu ile zarar arasında illiyet bağının bulunması yeterlidir. Sorumluluğun bu aşaması, XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında gerçekleşen endüstriyel ve sosyal devrimlerin bir sonucudur. Bu düşünce öğreti ve ictihadlarda giderek gelişmiştir. Objektif sorumluluk, önce iş mevzuatında ve demiryolu işletenlerin sorumluluğuna ilişkin yasalarda yer almış, daha sonra sebep sorumluluğu anlayışına dayandırılabilecek birçok alana yayılmıştır (İmre, s. 50-55). Ceza hukuku sahasında da benzeri gelişmeler olmuştur. Roma, Yunan, Fars ve Bâbil hukuklarında sadece insanlar değil hayvanlar ve cansız varlıklar da cezaî sorumluluğa konu olabiliyordu. Zarar veren ister insan ister hayvan olsun mağdura teslim ediliyordu. Cezaî sorumlulukta şahsîlik ilkesi geçerli değildi. Cezalandırmanın amacı acı veren bedenî cezalarla fâile hatasının kefâretini ödetmek olduğu için cezalar son derece ağır, kullanılan yöntemler de vahşice ve işkenceye yönelikti. Bu uygulamaların Ortaçağ Avrupası’na da hâkim olduğu, bu dönemde suçun sadece maddî yönünün dikkate alındığı, fâilin sorumluluğa ehil olup olmadığına, söz konusu fiilin önceden suç olarak ilân edilip edilmediğine ve cezalandırılan kişinin gerçekten ilgili fiili işleyip işlemediğine pek dikkat edilmediği görülmektedir. 1789 Fransız İhtilâli cezaî sorumluluk alanında yeni ilkeler getirmiş, bu çerçevede fâilin hareketlerinin anlamını kavrayabilecek ve bunları isteyebilecek durumda olması cezaî sorumluluğun temel şartları sayılmış, kanunla belirlenmeden ve insanlara bildirilmeden bir fiilin suç sayılmaması, ceza seçimi ve takdirinde hâkimin yetkilerinin sınırlandırılması, sadece hayatta bulunan insanların cezaî sorumluluğa konu olabilmesi, cezaların şahsîliği, cebir altında olanların ve temyiz çağına ulaşmamış çocukların cezaî sorumluluklarının bulunmadığı, temyiz çağındaki çocuklara da ancak ıslah amaçlı basit cezaların uygulanabileceği ilkeleri kabul edilmiştir.
Sorumluluk Türleri. Yaptırımı Açısından. A) Cezaî Sorumluluk. Bu tür sorumluluk insanın kendi seçimiyle anlamı ve sonucunun idrakinde olarak işlediği, hukuk nizamınca suç sayılan fiilin ceza niteliğindeki yaptırımlarına katlanmasını ifade eder. B) Hukukî (Medenî) Sorumluluk. “Kişinin haksız fiiliyle verdiği zarardan, borcunu ifa etmemesinden veya geç yahut kötü ifa etmesinden dolayı tazminle yükümlü olması” demektir. 1. Akdî Sorumluluk. Hukukî işlemler ve özellikle akidlerden doğan borcun hiç ifa edilmemiş ya da gereği gibi yerine getirilmemiş olması durumunda borçlunun verdiği zarardan sorumlu olmasına denir. 2. Akid Dışı Sorumluluk. Aralarında önceden akdî bir münasebet bulunmaksızın veya önceden mevcut akdî münasebet ihlâl edilmeksizin bir kimsenin başka birine zarar vermesi halinde tazminat borcunun ortaya çıkmasına akid dışı sorumluluk veya haksız fiil sorumluluğu adı verilir. a) Kusura dayanan sorumluluk. “Kusurlu fiiliyle başkasına zarar veren kimsenin fiilinden ve doğurduğu sonuçlardan sorumlu olması” demektir. Bu tür sorumlulukta zarar verenin kusurlu olmadığını ispat etmesi sorumluluktan kurtulma sebebidir. b) Kusura dayanmayan sorumluluk. Kişi bazı durumlarda kusursuz olmasına rağmen sorumlu tutulur; buna objektif sorumluluk veya sebep sorumluluğu denir. Öte yandan hukukî sorumlulukla ilgili şöyle bir ayırım da yapılmaktadır: Eğer sorumluluğun sebebinden, yani bir şahsa isnat edilen haksız fiilden, borcun ifa edilmemesi veya geç yahut kötü ifa edilmesinden söz ediliyorsa buna “için sorumluluk” veya “dolayı sorumluluk”, bir kimsenin borcu mal varlığıyla karşılaması ve tekeffül etmesinden, yani borçlunun alacaklıya karşı mal varlığıyla sorumlu olmasından bahsediliyorsa buna da “ile sorumluluk” denir.
Konusu Açısından. A) Ceza Hukukunda. Bu alandaki sorumluluğun konusu ceza ehliyetine sahip gerçek kişiler yani insanlardır. Hükmî şahısların cezaî sorumluluğa konu teşkil edip etmeyecekleri ise tartışmalıdır. B) Borçlar Hukukunda. 1. Kişi ile Sorumluluk. “Borçlunun kendi şahsıyla sorumlu olması” anlamına gelir. İlkçağ’larda görülen, alacaklının alacağına karşılık borçlunun şahsına el koyup onu köle edinmesi, hatta öldürebilmesi gibi uygulamalar zamanla ortadan kalktığı için özel hukuk alanında artık kişi ile sorumluluk söz konusu değildir. 2. Mal Varlığı ile Sorumluluk. “Borçlunun sorumluluğunun yalnızca mal varlığı ile sınırlı olması” demektir. Borçlar hukukunda dar anlamıyla sorumluluk, alacaklının hakkını elde edebilmesi için el koyacağı mal varlığının hukukî durumunu ifade eder (Tunçomağ, I, 36). Kural olarak borçlu borcundan bütün mal varlığı ile sorumludur. Borç ifa edilmediği takdirde alacaklı, borçluya ait mal varlığının aktif kısmındaki malların ve hakların her birine alacağını karşılayacak kadarıyla ve cebrî icra yoluyla el koyabilir. Buna sınırsız sorumluluk denir. Borçlunun mal varlığının tamamıyla sorumlu olması yasa hükmü ya da sözleşme ile sınırlandırılabilir. Bu durumda da sınırlı sorumluluk söz konusu olur. Eğer alacaklı, borçlunun dilediği malına el koyma yetkisine sahip olmakla beraber bu yetki belli miktarla sınırlandırılmışsa buna sınırlı şahsî sorumluluk, alacaklı hakkını borçlunun ancak belli bir malından alabilecekse buna da sınırlı aynî sorumluluk adı verilir.
İslâm Hukukunda. Fıkıh eserlerinde sorumluluk konusunda yer alan muhteva, inceleme kolaylığı sağlaması açısından modern hukuktaki ayırımlar esas alınarak şöylece özetlenebilir: A) Cezaî Sorumluluk. Ceza hukuku alanında modern hukukun ulaşmış olduğu sorumlulukla ilgili temel ilkeler ya Kitap ve Sünnet’te doğrudan ifadesini bulmuş veya bu kaynaklardan hareketle fakihlerce kurallaştırılmıştır. Cezaî sorumluluğun sadece canlı ve mükellef insanlar için söz konusu olması, cezanın şahsîliği ve hukuk önünde herkesin eşit sayılması ilkeleri bunların başında gelir. Yine had olarak nitelenen suç ve cezalarda hâkime takdir yetkisinin tanınmaması, fıkıhta suç ve cezanın kanunîliği fikrinin işlenmesi açısından önemli bir zemin oluşturmuştur. İslâm hukukuna göre aklî melekeleri yerinde ve ergenlik çağına ulaşmış olan her insan ceza ehliyetine sahip olup cezaî fiillerinden dolayı sorumludur. Ceza ehliyetine etki eden durumlar arasında yaş küçüklüğü, akıl hastalığı, sarhoşluk, uyku, bayılma ve hipnoz sayılabilir. Uzmanlar tarafından etki derecelerinin tesbit edilmesi gereken bu hallerin varlığı bazı durumlarda ceza ehliyetini tamamen ortadan kaldırdığından cezaî sorumluluk da söz konusu olmaz. Cezaî sorumluluk için fâilin irade hürriyetine sahip bulunması gerektiği, cebir halinde ise böyle bir seçim imkânı olmadığı dikkate alındığında bu durumda cezaî sorumluluktan söz edilemeyeceği açıktır. Suç niteliğindeki fiillerin ikrah ve zaruret hallerinde işlenmesi meselesi fakihlerce titiz bir incelemeye tâbi tutularak başkalarının hayat hakkını ihlâl sayılmayacak durumlarda kural olarak bu gibi kişilerin cezaî sorumluluğunun olmayacağına hükmedilmiştir. İşlenen fiilin cezaî sorumluluk doğurabilmesi için o fiilin işlenmesi suç olmalıdır. Bir fiilin suç sayılıp cezalandırılabilmesi için de onun nas veya hukuk nizamınca suç olarak belirlenmiş olması (kanunî unsur), bilfiil işlenmiş olması (maddî unsur), fâilin kusurlu olması (mânevî unsur), ayrıca fiilin hukuka aykırı olması gerekir. Kusur bulunmayan yerde cezaî sorumluluk da yoktur. Cezaî sorumluluk derecesi “fâilin kastı, ihmali veya taksiri” demek olan kusur türüne göre belirlenir.
B) Hukukî Sorumluluk. 1. Akdî Sorumluluk. Çağdaş birçok araştırmacının belirttiği gibi insanların birbirlerinin mallarını haksız yere yemelerinin yasaklanmış olması (el-Bakara 2/188) ve genel anlamda zararın tazmin edilmesi gerektiği yönündeki ilke uyarınca, borcun hiç ifa edilmemiş ya da gereği gibi yerine getirilmemiş olmasıyla alacaklıya verilen zararın tazmin edilmesi gerekir. Ancak zararın kesin biçimde meydana gelmiş olması ve hukuken ispat edilebilmesi şarttır. 2. Akid Dışı Sorumluluk. Batı’da borçlar hukuku alanında sorumluluk fikrinin son dönemlerde ulaştığı sebep sorumluluğu anlayışı ve dayandığı fikrî temeller İslâm hukukunun ana kaynaklarını oluşturan Kur’an ve Sünnet’te mevcut olduğu için başlangıçtan itibaren fıkıh doktrinlerinde sorumlulukla ilgili meseleler bu esaslar çerçevesinde, ancak diğer konularda olduğu gibi daha çok kazüistik metotla ve zengin örneklerle ele alınıp işlenmiştir. Hz. Peygamber’in Vedâ hutbesinde can, mal ve namus dokunulmazlığını ilân eden sözleriyle (Müslim, “Birr”, 32; Ebû Dâvûd, “Edeb”, 35) hangi şekilde olursa olsun hiç kimseye zarar verilemeyeceğini ve zararın yeni bir zararla giderilemeyeceğini ifade eden, “Zarar ve mukabele bi’z-zarar yoktur” hadisi (el-Muvaṭṭaʾ, “Aḳżıye”, 31; İbn Mâce, “Aḥkâm”, 17; Mecelle, md. 19) sorumluluk anlayışı ve tazmin sorumluluğuyla ilgili delillerin başında yer alır. Bu konudaki delillerin yoğunluğu sebebiyle, “Zarar izâle olunur” kuralı (Mecelle, md. 20) İslâm hukukunun beş temel ilkesinden biri sayılmıştır. Fıkıhta akid dışı sorumluluklarda kusur sorumluluğu anlayışı yerine sebep sorumluluğu anlayışı hâkim olduğu için (Yıldız, s. 167-168) kişiye mübâşeret veya tesebbüb yoluyla nisbet edilebilecek herhangi bir fiille zarar arasında illiyet bağı kurulabildiği takdirde o kişi meydana gelmiş olan zararı tazmin etmekle sorumlu olur. Hukukî sorumluluk için fâilin kusurlu olması şart olmamakla birlikte kişiye nisbet edilen zararlı fiilin mübâşeret halinde zarar görenin mutlak haklarını ihlâl edecek şekilde meydana gelmiş olması, tesebbüb halinde ise başlatma açısından hukuka aykırı sayılması şarttır. Çünkü başlatma itibariyle fiili hukuka aykırı olmasa bile başkalarının mutlak haklarını ihlâl ettiği takdirde mübâşeret halindeki fâil meydana getirdiği zararı tazminle sorumlu tutulur (a.g.e., s. 93-99; ayrıca bk. MÜBÂŞERET). Her iki şekliyle, yani fiili başlatma ve sonuçlandırma açısından kişiye nisbet edilebilecek hukuka aykırı fiil bulunmadığı takdirde bile kişinin yönetimindeki mal, kişi veya olayların sebep olduğu zararlardan dolayı tazmin sorumluluğu söz konusu edilebilir. Özellikle tehlike sorumlulukları dikkate alındığında, meselâ kazalar ve büyük enerji gücü ile çalışan işletmelerde meydana gelebilecek patlamaların doğurduğu zararlarda sebep sorumluluğu anlayışı oldukça önemlidir. Modern hukukta yararla zarar arasındaki bağ, genel özen gösterme, hukukî alan, tehlike, fedakârlığın denkleştirilmesi ve hakkaniyet gibi düşüncelere dayalı olarak özel hukuk alanında birçok sorumluluk geliştirilmiştir. Çağdaş İslâm hukuku araştırmalarında da klasik fıkıhtaki âkılenin sorumluluğu, fâili bulunamayan cinayetlerde kasâme usulüne göre ölünün bulunduğu mahalde oturanların veya o mahal sahiplerinin sorumluluğu, öldürülen ve sorumlusu herhangi bir yolla bulunamayan kimselerin diyetlerinden beytülmâlin sorumluluğu, borcunu ödeyecek kadar malı olmadan ölen kimsenin borçlarından yine beytülmâlin sorumluluğu gibi sorumlulukların modern hukuktakine benzer fikrî temellere dayandığı ve kanun koyucunun aynı ilkeleri dikkate alarak ihtiyaç halinde yeni sebep sorumlulukları oluşturabileceği belirtilmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Müsned, VI, 371; Mecelle, md. 19, 20; Zahit İmre, Doktrinde ve Türk Hukukunda Kusursuz Mesuliyet Halleri, İstanbul 1949, s. 8, 50-55; Haluk Tandoğan, Türk Mesuliyet Hukuku (Akit ve Akdî Mesuliyet), Ankara 1961, s. 1-49; R. Pound, Medḫal ilâ felsefeti’l-ḳānûn (trc. Salâh Debbâğ), Beyrut 1967, s. 87-125; Ali el-Hafîf, eḍ-Ḍamân fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî, Kahire 1971, I, 46; Kenan Tunçomağ, Türk Borçlar Hukuku, İstanbul 1976, I, 36-40, 426-607; H. Deschenaux – P. Tercier, Sorumluluk Hukuku (trc. Salim Özdemir), Ankara 1983, s. 1-7; Süleyman Muhammed Ahmed, Ḍamânü’l-mütlefât fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî, Kahire 1985, s. 29-72; Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, el-Fiʿlü’ḍ-ḍâr ve’ḍ-ḍamân fîh, Dımaşk 1988, s. 22-23; Mustafa Reşit Karahasan, Sorumluluk ve Tazminat Hukuku, İstanbul 1989, I, 57-59; Ahmet Akman, İslâm Hukukunda Akdî Mesuliyetten Doğan Tazminat (doktora tezi, 1992), MÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, s. 155, 157; Selâhattin Sulhi Tekinay v.dğr., Tekinay Borçlar Hukuku: Genel Hükümler, İstanbul 1993, s. 474-491; M. Ahmed Sirâc, Ḍamânü’l-ʿudvân fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî, Beyrut 1993, s. 64; Sulhi Dönmezer – Sahir Erman, Nazari ve Tatbiki Ceza Hukuku, İstanbul 1994, I, 307-311; II, 143; Rahmi Yaran, İslâm Hukukunda Borçlunun ve Alacaklının Temerrüdü (doktora tezi, 1994), MÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, s. 118-176, 241; Nuri Kahveci, İslâm Borçlar Hukukunda Tazminat (doktora tezi, 1998), AÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, s. 1-78; Fikret Eren, Borçlar Hukuku: Genel Hükümler, İstanbul 2003, s. 444-541; Kemal Yıldız, İslâm Sorumluluk Hukuku: Akit Dışı Sorumluluk, İstanbul 2005, s. 28-34, 73-76, 93-99, 167-168; Hüseyin Esen, İslâm’da Suç ve Ceza: İslâm Hukukunda Cezaî Sorumluluk, İzmir 2006, s. 39-40, 101-150; Mehmet Akif Aydın, “Eski Hukukumuzda Bir Haksız Fiil Türü Olarak İtlâf”, Hukuk Araştırmaları, V/1-3, İstanbul 1990, s. 67-85; a.mlf., “İslâm Hukukunda Gasp”, İTED, IX (1995), s. 163-220; G. S. Masoodi, “Criminal Liability at Islamic and Western Laws (Parallel and Distinctive Features)”, Islamic and Comparative Law Quarterly, X-XI, New Delhi 1990-91, s. 1-16; Nihat Dalgın, “Cezaî Sorumlulukta Kasıt”, Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi İlâhiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, sy. 10, Samsun 1998, s. 207-247; R. A. Duff, “Responsibility”, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, London 1998, VIII, 290-294; Mustafa Çağrıcı, “Mesuliyet”, İslâm’da İnanç, İbadet ve Günlük Yaşayış Ansiklopedisi (ed. İbrahim Kâfi Dönmez), İstanbul 2006, III, 1298-1300.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2009 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 37. cildinde, 380-382 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.