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MENKUL Skip to content Bir yerden başka bir yere taşınabilen şey anlamında İslâm hukuku terimi.
Sözlükte “bir şeyi bir yerden başka bir yere taşımak” anlamındaki nakl kökünden ism-i mef‘ûl olan menkūl kelimesi Mecelle’de, “Bir yerden başka bir yere nakli mümkün olan şeydir” diye tanımlanır (md. 128). Buna göre para, hayvanlar, elbise, kitap, mobilya vb. eşya menkuldür.
Mallar, en esaslı özellikleri olan harekete ve taşınmaya konu olup olmamasına göre menkul ve gayri menkul (akar) şeklinde ikiye ayrılır (bk. MAL). Germen hukukundan etkilenen sistemlerde eşya hukukunun bel kemiğini oluşturan bu ayırımda menkul mallarla gayri menkuller arasındaki en temel fark, menkuller için aynî hakların alenîliğini sağlayan zilyedliğin gayri menkuller açısından yetersiz görülmesi ve hakların alenîliği için gayri menkullerde başka sistemlere ihtiyaç duyulmasıdır. Türk-İsviçre hukukunda bu sistem tapu sicilidir. Tapu siciliyle bu alenîlik sağlandığı gibi gayri menkul mallar üzerindeki aynî hakkın iktisabı da yine tapu siciline kayıtla olmaktadır. Menkuller açısından bu fonksiyonları zilyedlik sağlamaktadır (Saymen – Elbir, s. 125). İslâm hukukunda ise zilyedlik, menkullerdeki gibi gayri menkuller üzerindeki aynî hakların alenîliği açısından da yeterli görülmüş ve taşınmazlara has ayrı bir sistem getirilmemiştir (Serahsî, XV, 9). Bundan dolayı menkul ve gayri menkul ayırımı belirtilen hukuk sistemlerine oranla İslâm hukukunda ikinci derecede önem taşır.
Menkul malların kapsamının tesbiti ilk planda fiziksel hareket kriteri esas alındığında kolay gibi görünse de fıkıh doktrinleri her zaman bu kritere bağlı kalmaz. Bu sebeple ilgili hukukî işlemin ya da olayın özelliğine göre menkulün kapsamı genişleyip daralabilir. Menkulün kapsamında değişken olan bu alan esas itibariyle inşa edilmiş yapılar ve ağaçlarla ilgilidir. Türk-İsviçre hukukunda kabul edildiği şekliyle “mütemmim cüz” ilkesi fıkıhta benimsenmediğinden bir arazi üzerinde o araziye bağlı bulunan bina ve ağaçlar üst hakkı gibi yöntemlerle toprak mâlikinin dışında bir kimseye ait olabilmektedir (a.g.e., XV, 29-32; Ebül‘ulâ Mardin, s. 8-10). Bundan dolayı özellikle Hanefî doktrininde en açık şekilde vurgulandığı gibi bina ve ağaçların araziden ayrılması ve başka bir yere nakledilmesi bu işlem bina ve ağaçlara zarar verse dahi mümkün görülmektedir. Hanefîler’de gayri menkul ya da akar lafzı kullanıldığında ilk akla gelen şey üzerinde bina bulunsun bulunmasın araziler olup (İbn Âbidîn, IV, 361) menkuller bunun dışındaki eşyalardır. Bu ilke doğrultusunda Hanefî doktrininde bina ve ağaçlara iki açıdan bakılır. Eğer bunlar belirli bir hukukî olay yönünden arazi ile birlikte düşünülüyorsa akar, arazi mâlikine ait olmamaları gibi bir sebeple araziden ayrı değerlendiriliyorsa menkul hükmündedir (a.g.e., IV, 365; Ali Haydar, I, 230; III, 127).
Mâlikî doktrininde bina gibi ağaçlar ve arazide bulunan diğer ekili ve dikili şeyler de gayri menkul niteliğindedir. Çünkü bunların özüne zarar vermeden taşınmaları mümkün olmadığından zarar görmemeleri ve niteliklerini yitirmemeleri için gayri menkul mal sayılmaları gereklidir (Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, III, 148-149). Nitekim Mâlikîler’in akar tanımı her zaman arazi, bina ve ağaçları içerir (Muhammed b. Abdullah el-Haraşî, VI, 164, 168). Şâfiî doktrininde akar tanımına kural olarak arazi ve arazideki ağaç ve binalar da girmekle birlikte özellikle şüf‘a hakkı konusunda (Kalyûbî, III, 144) ve vakıf arazisi üzerinde uzun süreli kiralama (hikr) gibi yöntemlerle sahip olunan bina ve ağaçlar menkul kabul edilir (Şemseddin er-Remlî, V, 196). Yine Şâfiîler’e göre zilyedlik hükümleri bakımından bina akar niteliğindedir (Kalyûbî, II, 268).
İslâm hukukunda menkul ve gayri menkul mallar arasında hüküm yönünden çok esaslı farklılıklar söz konusu değildir (Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, III, 163). Aradaki hüküm farkları temelde akara dair bazı özelliklerin menkullerde olmamasıyla ilgilidir. Gayri menkuller bilhassa tarım toplumlarında en sağlam geçim vasıtası, üretim faktörü ve servet ölçüsü olduğundan (Saymen-Elbir, s. 292) menkul kıymetler rejiminin yaygınlık kazandığı son zamanlara kadar menkullerden daha değerli kabul edilmiştir. Diğer taraftan gayri menkullerin süreklilik özelliğine karşılık menkul malların ömrü genellikle kısadır. Şüf‘a ve irtifak hakkı ile komşuluk hukuku gayri menkullere hastır. Menkullerin hırsızlık ve telef olma gibi sebeplerle mâlikinin elinden çıkması ihtimali daha yüksektir. Menkul mallar kesin sınırlarla birbirinden ayrıldığı halde gayri menkuller genelde böyle değildir. Bundan dolayı taşınmaz mülkiyetine oranla menkul mülkiyeti konusu daha basit ve yalındır. Menkul ve gayri menkul arasındaki bu temel farklılıklar fıkhî hükümler bakımından başlıca şu sonuçları doğurmuştur: 1. Menkul ve gayri menkul mallar üzerindeki aynî hakların alenîliği zilyedlikle sağlanmakla birlikte menkul malların kabzı ve üzerinde zilyedlik tesisi gayri menkullerden farklıdır. Buna göre bir satım ya da hibe işleminde menkul malın kabzedilmesi o malın nakliyle olmaktadır (Zekeriyyâ el-Ensârî, II, 85). Gayri menkulün kabzı ise malın alıcının istifadesine hazır olarak sunulmasıyladır (tahliye): Evin kapısını açmak, anahtarı teslim etmek gibi (İbn Kudâme, IV, 90, 218). Menkullerle gayri menkullerde zilyedliğin tesisi de birbirinden farklıdır. Niza konusu bir malda kimin zilyed olduğu o malın menkul ya da gayri menkul olması durumunda farklı kriterlerle belirlenir (Ali Haydar, IV, 373). Buna göre menkullerde bir malı bilfiil elinde bulunduran zilyed sayılır, ayrıca zilyedliğin ispatı istenmez (Osman b. Ali ez-Zeylaî, VI, 222; Ali Haydar, IV, 375). Gayri menkullerde ise Hanefî doktrininde akarı elinde bulunduruyor olmak yeterli bir delil sayılmayıp akar üzerinde mâliklerin mallarında tasarruf ettiği şekilde tasarrufta bulunma şartı vardır. Tarlayı ekip biçmek, evde oturmak, arsada bina yapmak gibi. 2. Şüf‘a hakkı gayri menkuller için geçerlidir. Hanefî, Şâfiî ve Hanbelîler’e göre ise bina ve ağaçlar araziye bağlı olarak şüf‘a konusu olabilir. Araziden ayrı müstakil satılan inşaat, ağaç, ekinler vb. üst haklarıyla birlikte satılsa bile burada menkul hükmünde oldukları için tek başlarına şüf‘a söz konusu olmaz (Nevevî, V, 69). Bunlar üst hakkıyla satılmaları sebebiyle akar niteliği ve hükmü kazanmaz (Ali Haydar, III, 148). Mâlikî doktrininde ağaç ve bina akar sayıldığı için tek başına satılsa bile bunlarda şüf‘a gerçekleşir. Ağaçlar eğer aşılanmışsa meyveleri Şâfiî mezhebine göre menkul hükmündedir; Hanefî, Hanbelî ve Mâlikîler’de ise bina ve ağaç gibi araziye bağlı olarak düşünüldüğünde gayri menkul hükmünde olabilmektedir (İbn Kudâme, V, 180). 3. Bey‘ bi’l-vefâ Hanefîler’de, sonraki âlimlerin istihsana dayanarak verdikleri bir hükümle akarlarda meşrû kabul edilmekle birlikte tercih edilen görüşe göre menkullerde câiz görülmemiştir (Ali Haydar, I, 224). 4. Hanefî doktrininde vakıf işlemi akara has olup menkullerin vakfedilmesi istisnaî durumlar hariç mümkün değildir (İbn Âbidîn, IV, 363-365). Hanefîler’in dışındaki üç mezhepte ise menkul vakfedilebilir (Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, III, 147). Bu görüş farklılığı, vakfedilen malın süreklilik taşıması şartına karşılık menkul malların sınırlı bir ömrü olmasıyla ilgilidir. 5. Hanefîler’e göre müşteri satın aldığı menkul mal üzerinde onu teslim almadan satım akdi gibi hukukî bir işlemde bulunamaz; aynı mal gayri menkul ise bunu yapabilir (Mecelle, md. 253). Bu menkul malların helâk olma riski taşıması sebebiyledir. Zira teslim öncesi mebî‘ helâk olduğunda satım sözleşmesi bâtıl sayılacağı için burada garar bahis konusudur. Bazı haklar bu şekilde zayi olmaktadır (Ali Haydar, I, 409). Şâfiî doktrini ise mebî‘ akar olsun menkul olsun bu işleme cevaz vermez. 6. Menkul malın gasbı tartışmasız kabul edilmekteyken Ebû Yûsuf ve Ebû Hanîfe gayri menkulün gasba konu olamayacağı görüşündedir. Zira akarın nakli ve tahvili imkânsızdır. Fukahanın çoğunluğu ise akarın gasbını mümkün görür (İbn Kudâme, V, 140-141). Gasp hükümleri bakımından hâne, değirmen, dükkân vb. yapılar doğrudan akar hükmünde sayılmaktadır (Ali Haydar, II, 778). 7. Eksik ehliyetlilerin kanunî temsilcileri bunların menkul mallarını kolaylıkla satma yetkisine sahip oldukları halde gayri menkullerini sınırlı durumlarda ve ancak hâkimin izniyle satabilirler (a.g.e., I, 612-613; Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, III, 162-165). Bunun sebebi, akarın sürekliliği dolayısıyla, satıldığı takdirde ele geçecek bedelden daha kolay bir şekilde korunacağıdır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA Lisânü’l-ʿArab, “nḳl” md.; Serahsî, el-Mebsûṭ, XI, 73; XV, 9, 29-32; Kâsânî, Bedâʾiʿ, VII, 142, 256-257; İbn Kudâme, el-Muġnî , [baskı yeri ve tarihi yok] (Dâru ihyâi’t-türâsi’l-Arabî), IV, 90, 218; V, 140-141, 180; Nevevî, Ravżatü’ṭ-ṭâlibîn (nşr. Züheyr eş-Şâvîş), Beyrut 1985, V, 69; Osman b. Ali ez-Zeylaî, Tebyînü’l-ḥaḳāʾiḳ, Bulak 1315, VI, 222; Zekeriyyâ el-Ensârî, Esne’l-meṭâlib, [baskı yeri ve tarihi yok] (Dârü’l-kitâbi’l-İslâmî), II, 85, 478; Şemseddin er-Remlî, Nihâyetü’l-muḥtâc, Beyrut 1404/1984, V, 196; Kalyûbî, Ḥâşiye ʿalâ şerḥi Minhâci’ṭ-ṭâlibîn, Beyrut, ts. (Dârü’l-fikr), II, 268; III, 144; Muhammed b. Abdullah el-Haraşî, Şerḥu Muḫtaṣarı Ḫalîl, Beyrut, ts. (Dâru Sâdır), VI, 164, 168; Muhammed b. Ahmed ed-Desûkī, Ḥâşiye ʿale’ş-Şerḥi’l-kebîr, Kahire 1328, I, 463; III, 479; İbn Âbidîn, Reddü’l-muḥtâr (Kahire), IV, 348, 361, 363-365; Mecelle, md. 128, 129, 253, 905, 909, 1017, 1019, 1020; Ali Haydar, Dürerü’l-hükkâm, İstanbul 1330, I, 224, 230, 409, 612-613; II, 778; III, 127, 148; IV, 373-375; Ebül‘ulâ Mardin, Kat Mülkiyeti, İstanbul 1948, s. 8-10; Ferit Hakkı Saymen – Halid Kemal Elbir, Türk Eşya Hukuku, İstanbul 1954, s. 125, 292; Mustafa Ahmed ez-Zerkā, el-Fıḳhü’l-İslâmî fî s̱evbihi’l-cedîd, Dımaşk 1968, III, 147-149, 162-165; M. Akif Aydın, Türk Hukuk Tarihi, İstanbul 1999, s. 40, 351, 366, 406.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2004 yılında Ankara’da basılan 29. cildinde, 145-146 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.