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MOĞOLİSTAN Skip to content Orta Asya’nın doğusunda ülke.
Bölümler İçin Önizleme
Madde Planı
1/2 Müellif: İBRAHİM GÜNER Bölüme Git
Resmî adı Moğolistan (Mongol Uls) Cumhuriyeti’dir. Orta Asya’nın doğusunda Rusya ile Çin arasında kalan ve eskiden Dış Moğolistan diye bilinen bölgeyi…
2/2 Müellif: OSMAN GAZİ ÖZGÜDENLİ Bölüme Git
II. TARİH Moğolistan 1691’de imzalanan Dolon Nor Antlaşması’yla Çin’in bir eyaleti haline geldi (önceki tarihi için bk. MOĞOLLAR). Bu durum Mançu Qin…
I. FİZİKÎ ve BEŞERÎ COĞRAFYA
II. TARİH
III. ÜLKEDE İSLÂMİYET
Resmî adı Moğolistan (Mongol Uls) Cumhuriyeti’dir. Orta Asya’nın doğusunda Rusya ile Çin arasında kalan ve eskiden Dış Moğolistan diye bilinen bölgeyi kapsar. Yüzölçümü 1.566.500 km2 , nüfusu 2.900.000 (2013 tah.) olan ülke idarî bakımdan on sekiz eyalete ayrılmıştır. Başkenti Ulan Batur (Ulaanbaatar, Ulanbator, 1.240.000 nüfus), nüfusu 50.000’i aşan diğer şehirleri Darhan (95.000) ve Erdenet’tir (91.000).
I. FİZİKÎ ve BEŞERÎ COĞRAFYA Fizikî özellikleri bakımından Moğolistan üç ana bölgeye ayrılır: Kuzeyde sıradağlar, bu dağların arasında yer alan havzalar, güneyde uzanan plato ve çöl kuşağı. Zirveleri yer yer 4000 metreyi aşan dağların başlıcalarını Altay, Hangay, Sayan ve Hentiy dağları oluşturur. Ülkenin en yüksek noktası kuzeybatıdaki Nayramadlin zirvesidir (4374 m.). Bu sıradağlar arasında Büyük Göller bölgesi, Horgo bölgesi, Hovsgöl bölgesi, Selenge bölgesi gibi havzalar yer alır. Bunlardan Selenge havzasının güney kesimindeki verimli Orhon ırmağı havzası eski yerleşik kültürlerin beşiği olarak önem taşır. Moğolistan’ın doğu kesimi alçak platolarla kaplıdır. Güneyde ise ülke topraklarının yaklaşık üçte ikisini kaplayan yarı kurak Gobi çölü bulunur. Moğolistan’daki sıradağlar farklı havzalara yönelen ırmaklar arasında su bölümü çizgisi oluşturur. Meselâ kuzeydeki büyük ırmaklar Kuzey Buz denizine (Yenisey’in kolu Sihşid, Baykal gölüne dökülen Selenge aracılığıyla), Büyük Okyanus’a (Amur’un kolu Onon vasıtasıyla) ve Çin’deki Hulun gölüne (Kerulen ırmağı vasıtasıyla) yönelir; güneydeki küçük ırmaklar da ülke içindeki kapalı havzalarda kaybolur. Ülkenin çöküntü ovalarında birçok göl vardır. Moğolistan’da sık ve yaygın sıcaklık değişiminin yanı sıra son derece düşük yağış miktarıyla belirlenen sert bir kara iklimi hüküm sürer. Kışlar soğuk ve kuru, kısa süren yazları ise sıcak ve yağışlı geçer. Gobi çölünde 100 mm. olan yıllık yağış miktarı dağlık ve yüksek kesimlerde 3000 milimetreye kadar ulaşır; doğudaki ovalar ve alçak dağlar 200-300 mm. yağış almaktadır. Orta Moğolistan geniş otlaklarla kaplıdır. Altay dağlarının Moğolistan sınırları içinde kalan kesiminde ağaç bulunmamasına karşın kuzeydeki sıradağlarda kozalaklı ve yaprak döken türlerin yer aldığı ormanlar göze çarpar. Gobi çölünde ise ilkbaharda ve yaz başında cılız otsu bitkiler görülür.
Nüfusun çok seyrek olduğu Moğolistan’da km2 ’ye düşen nüfus iki kişiyi bile bulmaz. Nüfusun % 85’i Moğollar’dan oluşur. Ülkedeki başlıca azınlık toplulukları Kazaklar (% 7), Tunguzlar (% 4,6), Ruslar ve Çinliler’dir (% 3,4). Moğollar, Tibet halkı gibi Budist’tir, ancak günümüzde dinin etkisi azalmıştır. Şaman, müslüman ve hıristiyan topluluklar da vardır. Geniş bir yayla üzerinde yer alan ülkenin büyük bölümü yerleşime elverişsizdir. En kalabalık bölge kuzeydoğuda başşehir Ulan Batur çevresidir. Son yıllarda devlet tarafından çok sayıda mesken yapılmasına rağmen Moğollar’ın bir kısmı hâlâ yirmi kişiyi alabilecek “yurt” denilen çadırlarda yaşar.
Tarım imkânları kısıtlı olan ülkenin ekonomisi büyük ölçüde hayvancılığa ve madenciliğe dayanır. Temel ekonomik etkinlik olan hayvancılık ülkenin her yanında yapılır. Ulan Batur’un kuzeybatısında, Selenge havzasında ve büyük göllerin çanağında toplanmış olan tarım alanlarında tahıl, patates, sebze gibi ürünler yetiştirilir. Fakat tarımsal üretim ülke ihtiyaçlarına yetmez. II. Dünya Savaşı’ndan sonra Sovyet yatırımlarıyla hızla geliştirilen sanayi, iş gücünün % 23’üne iş imkânı sağlamaktadır. Maden endüstrisi en önde gelen sanayi dalıdır. Ülkede az miktarda kömür ve petrol çıkarılır. Erdenet’te çıkarılan bakır ve molibden yerinde zenginleştirildikten sonra ihraç edilir. Başlıca sanayi ürünleri gıda, tarım makine ve aletleri, yapı gereçleri ve giysilerdir (özellikle keçe ve kösele mallar). Sanayi tesislerinin çoğu Ulan Batur ve Darhan’da toplanmıştır. Ülkenin ihracatında Çin, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri ve Rusya başta gelir. Önemli ihraç mallarını yün ve diğer hayvansal ürünlerle çeşitli madenler oluşturur. İthalâtta başta gelen ülkeler Rusya, Çin, Güney Kore, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri ve Japonya’dır. Başlıca ithal malları makine, çeşitli donanım malzemesi, petrol, yiyecek ürünleri ve kimyasal maddelerdir. 49.308 kilometrelik karayolu ağının yalnızca % 3,5’i kaplanmıştır. Yol standartlarının çok düşük olmasına karşın ülkenin her yanında kamyonla ulaşım sağlanmaktadır. Trans-Moğolistan demiryolu Ulan Batur’u Moskova ve Pekin’e bağlar. Moğolistan’da bulunan kırk dört havaalanının on üç tanesinin pisti gelişmiştir. Uluslararası hava ulaşımı ise Ulan Batur yakınlarındaki havaalanlarından yapılır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA :
Ali Yiğit, Türk Ülkeleri ve Türklerin Yaşadıkları Bölgelerin Coğrafyası , Elazığ 1996, s. 133; İbrahim Atalay, Kıtalar ve Ülkeler Coğrafyası , İzmir 1999, s. 434-437; İbrahim Güner, Kıtalar ve Ülkeler Coğrafyası , Erzurum 2000, I, 437-440; Christopher P. Atwood, Encyclopedia of Mongolia and Mongol Empire , New York 2004, s. 369-384; I. Jeffries, Mongolia, A Guide to Economic and Political Developments , New York 2007; Infrastructure in Mongolia: Challenges and Opportunites , Ulaanbaatar 2009; “Moğolistan”, Görsel Dünya Ansiklopedisi , İstanbul 1983, VIII, 2096-2099; Encyclopedia of the World’s Nations and Cultures (ed. G. Thomas Kurian), New York 2007, s. 1618-1633.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2019 yılında Ankara’da basılan (gözden geçirilmiş 3. basım) EK-2. cildinde, 275-276 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
II. TARİH Moğolistan 1691’de imzalanan Dolon Nor Antlaşması’yla Çin’in bir eyaleti haline geldi (önceki tarihi için bk. MOĞOLLAR ). Bu durum Mançu Qing hânedanının 1911’de yıkılışına kadar devam etti. Aynı tarihte Cebtsun Damba Hutuhtu’nun liderliğinde birleşen Moğollar bağımsızlıklarını ilân ettilerse de uzun görüşmelerden sonra ancak özerklik elde edebildiler (18 Kasım 1911). Ülke 1911-1918 yıllarında Çin ve Rus ajanlarının rekabet alanı haline geldi. Çin 1915’te Kiahta Antlaşması ile Dış Moğolistan’ın özerkliğini tanıdıysa da Ekim 1917 Bolşevik İhtilâli’nin yarattığı karışıklıklardan faydalanarak Dış Moğolistan’a müdahale etti. Ekim 1918’de bölgeye ulaşan bir Çin ordusu 1919’da Urga’yı (bugünkü Ulan Batur) ele geçirip özerkliğe son verdi ve bölgede Çin hâkimiyetini yeniden kurdu. Bu durum, Beyaz Rus ordusundan Baron von Ungern-Sternberg’in Şubat 1921’de Urga’yı kuşatarak ele geçirmesine ve Çin hâkimiyetine son vermesine kadar sürdü. Mart 1921’de Moğol Halk Partisi kuruldu. Damdiny Sühbaatar ve Khorlogiyn Çoybalsan’ın liderliğindeki güçler birleşince mücadele, bağımsızlığı esas alan güçlü bir halk hareketine dönüştü. Sovyet desteğiyle devrimci bir ordu örgütlendi. Haziran 1921 tarihinde Kızılordu Moğolistan’a girdi. 6 Temmuz’da Kızılordu’nun da yardımıyla işgalci Beyaz Rus ordusu Urga’dan çıkarıldı ve Baron von Ungern-Sternberg öldürüldü. Ülkede Moğol devrim idaresi kuruldu. Kızılordu iki grup tarafından oluşturulan yönetimi destekledi. Sovyet modeli esas alındı ve topraklar devletleştirildi. Bir Moğol heyeti daha 5 Kasım 1921’de Lenin ile görüştü ve Sovyet-Moğol antlaşması imzalandı. Moğolistan bu tarihten itibaren Sovyet Rusya’dan ekonomik yardım aldı. Sovyet hukukçuları tarafından hazırlanan anayasa 1923’te parlamentoda kabul edildi. Sembolik bir hükümdar olarak başta bulunan Cebtsun Damba Hutuhtu’nun ölümünden sonra 26 Kasım 1924’te Moğolistan Halk Cumhuriyeti ilân edildi. Ancak bu cumhuriyet özerk bir statüyü kabul ederek 1924-1945 yılları arasında Çin hâkimiyeti altında kaldı.
Rus askerî birlikleri 1925’te Moğolistan’dan çekildi. Bununla birlikte Moğolistan Halk Cumhuriyeti, kurulduğu tarihten itibaren Sovyet Rusya’nın sıkı bir müttefiki olarak bu ülkeden gelen bütün tavsiye ve emirleri yerine getirdi. Ülke Sovyet Rusya’ya paralel bir siyasî, içtimaî ve iktisadî gelişim gösterdi. 1932 yılında çıkan bir isyan da Sovyetler’in yardımı ile bastırıldı. 1941’de Moğol alfabesi terkedilerek Rus alfabesine geçildi. Ülke 1936-1939 yıllarında Komünist Partisi lideri ve Başbakan Mareşal Khorlogiyn Çoybalsan’ın diktatörlüğünde yönetildi. Stalin’in izinden giden Çoybalsan pek çok siyasî muhalifi ortadan kaldırdı. II. Dünya Savaşı esnasındaki Japon saldırısı 1939’da Sovyet-Moğol ortak kuvvetleri tarafından Halhin Gol’de durduruldu. Japonlar’ın işgal ettiği İç Moğolistan’dan topladıkları Moğol askerlerinin de taraf değiştirmesiyle Japon kuvvetleri büyük bir yenilgiye uğratıldı.
II. Dünya Savaşı’nın ardından Yalta Konferansı (Şubat 1946) kararları doğrultusunda yapılan referandumda Moğollar’ın tamamına yakını tam bağımsızlıktan yana oy kullandı. Moğolistan 1950’li yıllarda Doğu bloku ülkeleri tarafından da resmen tanındı. Çoybalsan’ın 1952’de ölümünden sonra Komünist Parti başkanlığına ve başbakanlığa Tsedenbal getirildi. 6 Temmuz 1960 tarihinde ülkede yeni anayasa kabul edildi. 1961’de Birleşmiş Milletler’e girmesinin ardından Moğolistan’ı resmen tanıyan ülke sayısı arttı. Moğolistan son olarak 1987’de Amerika Birleşik Devletleri tarafından da resmen tanındı. Çin ile bağımsızlıktan sonra kopan siyasî ilişkiler ancak 1987’de yeniden kurulabildi.
Aralık 1989 – Mart 1990 tarihlerinde ülke reform isteyen halkın yoğun gösterilerine sahne oldu. Muhalefet örgütlerinden biri olan ve 1989’da kurulan Demokratik Moğolistan Birliği devlet tarafından resmen tanındı. 1989’da ülkedeki bürokratik engellerin kaldırılması için bir reform programı hazırlandı. Aynı yıl Moğolistan’da bulunan Sovyet birlikleri geri çekilmeye başladı. Mart 1990’da Komünist Parti’nin Politbüro üyeleri ve merkez komitesi sekreteri istifa etti. Yoğun gösterilerin ardından ülkede çok partili sisteme geçiş için gerekli anayasa değişikliği yapıldı. Çıkarılan bir yasa ile resmî görevlerin tek kişide ve tek partide toplanması yasaklandı. Aynı yıl Moğolistan Devrimci Halk Partisi, Marksizm’i terkettiğini açıkladı. Bu karar ülkede demokrasiye geçişin önünü açtı. 1992’de yapılan ilk çok partili seçimlerde Moğolistan Devrimci Halk Partisi oyların büyük çoğunluğunu alarak iktidara geldi. Aynı yıl yeni anayasa kabul edilerek ülkenin adındaki “halk” kelimesi kaldırıldı ve devletin adı Moğolistan Cumhuriyeti oldu. Yeni anayasa ile insan hakları, özel mülkiyet hakkı ve güçler ayrılığı ilkelerine dayanan bir devlet yapısı oluşturuldu. Moğolistan bu tarihten itibaren dış dünyaya açılmaya başladı. Serbest piyasa ekonomisine geçiş esnasında ülkede büyük ekonomik sıkıntılar yaşandı. Moğolistan’ın dış dünyaya açılması ile birlikte serbest piyasa ekonomisi de gelişti.
Moğolistan, 1990’lara kadar sosyalist bir sistem uygulanmakla birlikte başta göçebelik ve Budizm olmak üzere bazı özellikleriyle diğer sosyalist blok ülkelerine göre daha kendine özgü nitelikler taşıyan bir ülkedir. Moğolistan’ın kültür yapısı geleneksel değerlerle hızla gelişen modern öğelerin birleşmesine dayanmaktadır. Özellikle XX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren sanayi bölgeleri etrafında yoğunlaşan ve sanayileşmeye paralel olarak gelişen bir şehirleşme göze çarpmaktadır. Büyük şehirler ancak 1945 yılındaki sanayileşmeden sonra gelişti. Ülkedeki başlıca büyük şehirler arasında başşehir Ulan Batur, demir çelik üretim merkezi Darhan ve 1975’te kurulan, bakır ve molibden işleme merkezi olan Erdenet sayılabilir. Şehirleşmenin gelişmesi geleneksel tarım ve hayvancılık ülkesi niteliğindeki Moğolistan’ı değiştirdi. 1956’da ülkenin ancak % 21’i şehirlerde yaşarken 1981’de bu oran % 62’ye ulaştı, 1990’ların sonlarında ise % 65’i geçti.
Moğolistan, kurulduğu 1921 yılından beri pek çok ekonomik sorunla karşılaştı. İlk kuruluş yıllarında nüfusunun önemli bir kısmını okuma yazma bilmeyen insanların oluşturduğu, sanayi ve endüstrinin gelişmediği, göçebe ve kırsal nüfusun çoğunlukta bulunduğu, önemli iletişim ve ulaşım sorunlarının yaşandığı bir ülke durumundaydı. Bunun yanı sıra coğrafî konumu bakımından Sovyet Rusya ile Çin arasında yer alması Moğolistan için önemli problemler oluşturuyordu. Ancak geniş bir alana yayılan ve homojen bir nüfusa sahip olan Moğolistan büyük doğal kaynaklara sahiptir. Ülkenin önemli yeraltı kaynakları arasında bakır, taş kömürü, volfram, florit, fosfor, altın, kalay ve granit bulunmaktadır. Ekonomik kalkınma, 1948 yılından sonra uygulanmaya başlanan beş yıllık kalkınma planlarıyla sağlanmaya çalışıldı. 1990’lı yıllarda sosyalist ekonomiden serbest piyasa ekonomisine geçtikten sonra Moğolistan hızla dış dünyaya açıldı. 1991 yılından itibaren ekonomide özelleştirme programı uygulanmaya başlandı. 1990-1994 arasında küçülme yaşayan Moğolistan ekonomisi 1995 yılından sonra yeniden büyümeye başladı. Bugün Moğolistan’ın başlıca problemleri arasında coğrafyaya göre nüfusun az oluşu, zor iklim ve ulaşım şartları, sermaye birikiminin azlığı ve yatırım eksikliği sayılabilir.
Coğrafî ve ekonomik gereksinimlerden dolayı 1979’dan itibaren doğum oranını yükseltmek için önlemler alınmış ve nüfusta hızlı bir artış olmuştur. Nüfus 1979’da 1.594.800, 1989’da 2.043.400, 2000 yılında 2.650.952, 2010’da ise 2.754.685, 2013’teki tahminlere göre 2.900.000 kişiye ulaşmıştır. Moğolistan, diğer Asya ülkelerinden çok farklı olarak homojen bir nüfusa sahiptir. 1998 yılı istatistiklerine göre Moğolistan nüfusunun % 85’ini ana dili Moğolca olan unsurlar teşkil etmektedir. Moğolca ana dilli unsurlar arasında Halhalar nüfusun yaklaşık % 90’ını oluşturmaktadırlar. Moğol dili konuşan diğer etnik gruplar arasında Oyratlar, Buryatlar, Dariggangalar ve Darhatlar vardır. Yine 1998 yılı istatistiklerine göre Moğol olmayan en büyük etnik grup Türkçe konuşan ve ülkenin batısında oturan Kazaklar’dır (% 7). Bunun yanı sıra Moğolistan’da nüfusun yaklaşık % 4,6’sını Tunguzlar, % 3,4’ünü ise ülkenin çeşitli yerlerine dağılmış bulunan Çinliler ile Ruslar teşkil etmektedir. Dinî olarak Moğolistan nüfusunun % 96’sını Budistler (Tibet Budist Lamaizm’i) meydana getirmektedir.
III. ÜLKEDE İSLÂMİYET Sâmânîler X. yüzyılda Moğolistan steplerinde İslâmiyet’i yaymak için büyük gayret sarfettiler. Ancak İslâmiyet bugünkü Moğolistan’a XIX. yüzyıldan itibaren ülkenin batısında yoğunlaşmış olan Kazaklar vasıtasıyla girdi. Bu bölgedeki Moğollar Budist idi. Ancak Kazaklar gibi Türk azınlıkları İslâmiyet’i kabul etti. İslâmlaşma süreci yavaş ilerledi ve XIX. yüzyılın tamamını kapsadı. Bugün Moğolistan’daki Kazak asıllı müslümanların tam sayısını tesbit etmek oldukça zordur. Moğolistan’daki müslümanlar 1930’lu yıllarda inançlarından dolayı zulme mâruz kaldılar. Camileri tahrip edildi. O dönemde medreseler gibi İslâmî kuruluşlar da yoktu. Evlerde Kur’an bulundurulması yasaklanmıştı. Tek parti yönetiminin sona ermesinden itibaren İslâmî hayat yeniden canlandı. Bugün halk arasında geleneksel dinî uygulamalar gayri resmî olarak mevcuttur. 1990’da Moğolistan’ın eski Çin büyükelçisi Hacı Hadirin Sayran’ın liderliğinde Ulan Batur’da Moğolistan Müslümanları Derneği kuruldu. Az sayıda Moğolistan vatandaşı Kazak asıllı müslüman hacca gitti. Ulan Batur ve Olgiy’de birer cami ibadete açıldı. Dinî kitaplar ülkeye Hindistan, Pakistan ve Türkiye yoluyla ulaştırılmaktadır. Müslüman Kazaklar’ın yönetimde üst seviyede görev almaları için bazı faaliyetler sürdürülmektedir. Moğolistan Müslümanları Derneği 2013’te ülkede 120.000 Kazak ve 30.000 Hoton asıllı müslümanın yaşadığını, kırk cami ile on müslüman öğrenci merkezi bulunduğunu ve yaklaşık 3000 öğrencisi olduğunu belirtir. Ulan Batur şehir konseyinde müslümanlar da temsil edilmektedir. Camiler ve İslâm merkezleri Kazakistan, Türkiye, Suudi Arabistan ve Körfez ülkelerindeki dinî gruplardan malî destek almaktadır. 2010’da Konya Dost Eli Derneği tarafından Ulan Batur’da Hz. Ömer Camii ve İslâm Kültür Merkezi yaptırıldı. 2013’te Türk İşbirliği ve Koordinasyon Ajansı Başkanlığı’nın da (TİKA) katkılarıyla inşa edilen Ulan Batur Hz. Osman Camii ve İslâm Kültür Merkezi, Başbakan Recep Tayyip Erdoğan tarafından hizmete açıldı. Ülkedeki müslümanların toplam nüfus içindeki oranı hakkında verilen rakamlar % 4-5,39 arasında değişmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA :
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Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2019 yılında Ankara’da basılan (gözden geçirilmiş 3. basım) EK-2. cildinde, 276-278 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.