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KERVANSARAY Skip to content Kervanların güvenliği ve konaklaması için anayol kenarında tesis edilen vakıf yapı.
Kervansaraylar kitâbelerinde ve kaynaklarda han, ribât olarak da anılmaktadır. Günümüzde han, şehir içinde konaklama ve ticaret amacıyla inşa edilen yapılar için kullanılan bir kelime olmuştur. Hanlar mal yapımı ve ticaret işlerinin birlikte görüldüğü yerlerdi ve isimlerini de burada üretilen mallardan alıyorlardı. Şehirler arasındaki yollar üzerinde yaptırılan ve kuruluşları bakımından çeşitli ihtiyaçları karşılayacak şekilde olanlara ise kervansaray denilmektedir. Kervanlar burada geçici olarak konaklar, beraberlerinde getirdikleri malları pazarlar ve para işlemlerini yaparlardı. Ribât olarak da anılmaları kervansarayların kaynağını işaret etmektedir.
Ribâtlar, sınır boylarında ve stratejik yerlerde ordu birlikleriyle binek hayvanlarının konakladığı, ileri harekâtlar için askerî amaçlı yapılardır. Kuzey Afrika’dan Türkistan’a kadar her yerde savunma duvarıyla çevrili, içeriye tek kapıdan girişin sağlandığı, ahır, ambar, askerlerin barındığı bölümler ve gözcü kuleleri bulunan ribâtlar inşa edilmiştir. Arap akınları öncesinde Mâverâünnehir’de ticaret yolları üzerinde kurulan menzil yapılarıyla Türkistan’da çevresi koruma duvarıyla çevrili büyük çiftlik yapılarından oluşan yerleşmeler aynı işleve uygun olduğundan ribât olarak kullanılmıştır. Askerî amaçlı ribâtların kervansaraya dönüşmesinde bu geleneklerin payı vardır. Semerkant ve Merv çevresinde, Mâverâünnehir’in çeşitli yerlerinde VIII-IX. yüzyıllarda askerî amaçlı ribâtların yapımı sürmüş, fakat IX. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru Müslümanlığın yayılmasıyla sınır boyunca yapılan ribâtların işlevi değişerek hankaha ve özellikle ticaret yolu üzerinde olanlar kervansaraya dönüşmüştür. Ribâtların nitelik değiştirmesiyle Mısır, Suriye ve Filistin’de ribât kelimesi “dervişlere mahsus zâviye-hankah, yolcuları, kimsesizleri, hacıları barındıran misafirhane” anlamında kullanılmış, Mâverâünnehir ve İran’da ise XI. yüzyıldan itibaren kervansarayla aynı mânayı ifade etmeye başlamıştır. Bugünkü bilgilerle sürekliliği ve gelişimi izlenebilen ve ana hatları değişmeyen plan şemasının da XI. yüzyıldan itibaren uygulandığı görülmektedir. Selçuklu döneminden Kuruçeşme Hanı, Dokuzunderbent Hanı, Hekim Hanı, Çardak Hanı ve Kırkgöz Hanı, Osmanlı döneminde Taşhan adıyla da anılan Erzurum Rüstem Paşa Kervansarayı ve Bitlis-Tatvan yolundaki Hazu Hanı’nın kitâbelerinde ribât adının geçmesi bu eski geleneğin Anadolu’da da yaşatıldığını göstermektedir. Gazneli Mahmud’un emriyle Firdevsî’nin anısına Meşhed yakınında Serahs yolu üzerinde yaptırılan Ribât-ı Mâhî / Ribât-ı Çâh (410/1019-20) en erken Türk kervansarayı olup dörtgen planı, revaklı avluya açılan dört eyvanı, masif kulelerle desteklenen kalın duvarları ve dışa taşkın taçkapısıyla kervansaray mimarisinin bütün özelliklerini bünyesinde toplamıştır. Karahanlı Hükümdarı Şemsülmülûk Nasr b. İbrâhim tarafından Buhara-Semerkant yolu üzerinde yaptırılan Ribât-ı Melik’in (471/1078-79) yalnızca taçkapısı günümüze ulaşabilmiştir. Son araştırmalara bağlı olarak çizilen restitüsyonunda, cephenin arkasında üzerleri açık üçlü bir avlu ve ikinci bir taçkapıdan geçilen merkezî kubbeli bölümle iki yanında yarı açık avlular görülmektedir. Kapalı bölümü geç dönem İran kervansaraylarının düzenini andırmakla birlikte iki bölümlü tasarımıyla Türk kervansaray mimarisinin ileriki gelişimine öncülük etmektedir. XI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına tarihlenen Dihistan Kervansarayı’nda tek eyvanlı ve revaklı avlunun önünde basit bir açık avlunun bulunduğu tesbit edilmiş, Akçakale Kervansarayı’nda iki avlulu düzenleme daha da geliştirilmiştir. Birinci avluda eyvanların arkasında boydan boya uzun mekânlar bulunmaktadır. İkinci avlu ise daha küçük ve kendi aralarında düzenlenmiş mekân gruplarıyla çevrilmiştir. XI. yüzyıl sonlarına tarihlenen Dâye Hatun Kervansarayı’nda dört eyvanlı ve revaklı avlulu şema tekrarlanırken Başane (Kurtluşehir-Kutlutepe) Kervansarayı’nda çevresinde kapalı mekânların yer aldığı avluya bir hol bölümü açılmaktadır. Hol bölümünün avludan daha dar olması sebebiyle bu farklı şema Anadolu Selçukluları’nın sultan hanlarının öncüsü olarak kabul edilmektedir. Karahanlı ve Gazneli devri örneklerinin bir devamı olan Büyük Selçuklu kervansaraylarından Ribât-ı Enûşirvân’ın dört eyvanlı revaklı avlusunun üç köşesinde beyitler yer almakta, Ribât-ı Za‘ferânî’de beyit düzeni olmadan aynı plan görülmektedir. Ribât-ı Şerif ise (508/1114-15) Akçakale Kervansarayı gibi iki avlulu şemada yapılmıştır. Dörtgen planlı, dört eyvanlı ve üç yönden revaklı avlunun önünde yine eyvanlı ve revaklı ikinci bir avlu yer almaktadır.
Anadolu, Selçuklu hâkimiyetine girmesinin ardından XII. yüzyılın sonlarında milletlerarası ticaretin merkezi olmuştur. Ekonomi politikalarını ve fetihlerini milletlerarası ticaretin konumuna göre düzenleyen Selçuklu sultanları Anadolu’nun bir ucundan diğer ucuna, ana ticaret yollarından ara yollara kadar her alanda kervansaray yaptırmışlardır. Sultanlar ve devlet adamları tarafından inşa ettirilen bu vakıf yapılarında yolcular üç gün boyunca kervansaray kurucusunun misafiri sayılır ve ücret alınmazdı. Selçuklu kervansaraylarında sefer sırasında ordunun konakladığı, yabancı hükümdarların ağırlandığı ve bu yapıların gerektiğinde hapishane ve sığınak olarak da kullanıldığı bilinmektedir. Selçuklu kervansarayları, kesme taş kaplı ve destek kuleleriyle güçlendirilmiş yüksek duvarlarıyla bir kaleyi andırmaktadır. Bu yapılar, kervanların güvenliği kadar kervanlarla yolculuk yapan kişilerin her türlü ihtiyacını karşılayacak şekilde düzenlenmiştir. Barınma ve yemek imkânlarının yanı sıra hamam, mescid, eczahane ve gerektiğinde hekim, fakir yolculara bedava ayakkabı, hayvanlar için yem, nalbant, veteriner, araba tamiri gibi hizmetler sunulmuştur.
Anadolu Selçuklu kervansaraylarının çoğu, çevresinde çeşitli mekânların yer aldığı açık bir avlu ve bu avluya bakan hol bölümünden oluşmaktadır. Hol bölümü yolculara ve hayvanlarına ayrılmıştır. Pâye sıralarıyla neflere ayrılan, ortadaki dikey eksenin belirgin olduğu üç, beş ya da yedi nefli hol tonozlarla örtülmüş ve çok defa orta nefin merkezi küçük bir kubbe ile yükseltilmiştir. Avlunun iki yanında açık ve kapalı mekânlar, mescid, hamam gibi özel bölümler vardır. Bu tipte avlu bölümünün eni holden daha geniştir. II. Kılıcarslan’ın saltanatının son yılında 1192’de tamamlandığı kabul edilen Alay Hanı, sultan han plan şeması olarak adlandırılan bu klasik şemanın ilk örneğidir. Günümüze ulaşan Selçuklu hanlarından dokuz tanesi sultanlar tarafından yaptırılmış olup I. İzzeddin Keykâvus’un (1211-1220) inşa ettirdiği Evdir Hanı, geniş bir avlu çevresinde sıralanan iki sıra beşik tonozlu revaklarıyla avlulu – dört eyvanlı şemanın Anadolu’daki tek örneğidir. Alâeddin Keykubad’ın yaptırdığı Aksaray Sultan Hanı (626/1229) ve Kayseri-Sivas yolundaki Sultan Hanı (628/1231) klasik şemanın bütün özellikleriyle uygulandığı yapılardır ve her ikisinin de avlusunun ortasında köşk-mescidleri bulunmaktadır. Yapımına Alâeddin Keykubad döneminde başlanan ve II. Gıyâseddin Keyhusrev zamanında tamamlanan Ağzıkara Han (634/1236-37) ve Karatay Hanı’nda (638/1240-41) aynı şemaya büyük ölçüde bağlı kalındığı, fakat Karatay Hanı’nda köşk-mescid inşa edilmediği görülmektedir. Alâeddin Keykubad’ın yaptırdığı Alara Hanı’nda (629/1231-32) farklı bir plan uygulanmış, dar ve uzun avluya açılan mekânlar ahır bölümüyle çepeçevre kuşatılmıştır. “Eş odaklı hanlar” olarak tanımlanan bu grupta Afşin yakınlarındaki Ashâb-ı Kehf Külliyesi’nin hanı ve XIII. yüzyıl sonlarından Tercan Mama Hatun Kervansarayı da yer almaktadır. Vezir ve mimar Sâdeddin Köpek tarafından inşa ettirilen Zazadin Hanı (634/1236-37), hol bölümünün örtü sistemi ve girişi yandan olan avlunun hol bölümüne göre çok uzun olmasıyla benzerlerinden ayrılmaktadır. Mescidin cümle kapısının üstünde yer alması Kızılören Hanı’nda (602/1206) ilk defa karşılaşılan uygulamanın bir devamıdır. II. Gıyâseddin Keyhusrev’in yaptırdığı üç handan Eğridir Sultan Hanı (635/1237-38) ve İncir Hanı’nda (636/1238-39) klasik şema tekrarlanmıştır. Kırkgöz Hanı’nda ise klasik şemadan ayrılma görülür. Tonozla örtülü yatık dikdörtgen hol bölümünün önünde revaklı avlu yer almaktadır. Avluda, girişin iki yanında ve hole bitişen bölümlerde revakların yerine tonozlu mekânların konması dışında Evdir Hanı’nın planı tekrarlanmıştır. Aynı dönemde inşa edilen Şerefza Hanı’nda ise (1236-1246) Kırkgöz Hanı’nın hol bölümünün planı daha dar ve uzun olarak uygulanmıştır. Vezir Sâhib Ata Fahreddin Ali’nin Akşehir-Çay yolunda yaptırdığı İshaklı Kervansarayı (647/1249) klasik şemada ve avlusunda köşk mescidi bulunan bir handır. Mahperi Huand Hatun’un Amasya-Tokat yolu üzerindeki Hatun Hanı (636/1238-39), Antalya-Isparta yolundaki Susuz Han, Atabey Emîr Esedüddin Rûzbe’nin inşa ettirdiği Horozlu Han (1246-1249), Avanos Sarıhan sultan hanı plan şemasını tekrarlayan örneklerdir. XIII. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında önemli hanlar yapılmış olmakla birlikte sultan yapısı han yoktur. Vali Seyfeddin Karasungur b. Abdullah’ın inşa ettirdiği Goncalı Akhan (652/1254), Muînüddin Süleyman Pervâne tarafından mimar Gevherbaş b. Abdullah’a yaptırılan Durak Han (664/1266), Kırşehir Emîri Cacaoğlu Nûreddin’in yaptırdığı Kesikköprü Hanı (667/1268-69) ve kitâbeli kervansarayların sonuncusu olan Ebü’l-Mücâhid Yûsuf b. Ya‘kūb’un inşa ettirdiği Çay Hanı (677/1278-79), sultan hanlarında denenmiş plan şemasının boyutları küçültülerek sürdürüldüğü yapılardır. Moğol hâkimiyeti döneminde Anadolu’da ekonomik çöküntünün başlaması ve düzenin bozulması sonucu âbidevî ölçüde kervansaray inşası durmuştur. XIII. yüzyılın sonunda çoğu avlusuz, hatta moloz taştan küçük boyutlu kervansaraylar yapılmıştır. Bu dönemde inşa edilen Iğdır Kervansarayı, ana yol üzerinde olmamakla birlikte uzunlamasına gelişen üç nefli planı ve özenli taş işçiliğiyle ayrı bir yer tutmaktadır. Selçuklu kervansarayları, Osmanlı devrinde Anadolu’da milletlerarası ticaretin azalması ve ticaret yollarının güzergâhının değişmesiyle önemlerini yitirmiş, bazıları da (Kayseri Karatay Hanı gibi) zâviyeye dönüşmüştür.
Osmanlı döneminde genellikle yerleşim merkezlerinin ticaretle ilgili bölümlerinde ya da külliyelerin içinde kervansaraylara rastlanmaktadır. Osmanlı devlet politikası, menzilleri iskân etmek ve ıssız bölgeleri geliştirmek için menzil külliyelerinin yapımına önem vermiştir. Bu sebeple menzil külliyeleri içindeki menzil kervansaraylarının ayrı bir yeri vardır. Osmanlı devri kervansaraylarının çoğu işlev olarak açık bir avlu ve kapalı bölümlerden oluşmaktadır. Kare ya da dikdörtgen biçiminde ve revaklı olan bu avlunun çevresindeki mekânlar çoğunlukla iki katlı olarak inşa edilmiştir. Yolcuların kaldığı bölümde peykeler ve ocaklar bulunmakta, avlunun çevresinde ahırlar, depolar, yönetim birimleri vb. yer almaktadır. Diyarbakır’da Deliller Hanı da denilen Hüsrev Paşa Kervansarayı (934/1527-28), İzmir Çeşme’deki kervansaray (934/1527-28), Edirne Rüstem Paşa Kervansarayı (XVI. yüzyıl ortası), Diyarbakır’da Hasan Paşa Hanı (982/1574-75), Manisa’da Kurşunlu Han (1001/1592-93), Erzurum’da Rüstem Paşa kervansarayı (1560’tan önce), Kuşadası’nda Öküz Mehmed Paşa Kervansarayı (1021/1612), Tokat’ta Taşhan (1626-1632), Safranbolu’da Cinci Hanı (XVII. yüzyıl ortası) gibi yapılar, bu plan şemasının çok çeşitli mimari tasarımlarda uygulandığını göstermektedir. Kare avlunun çevresindeki kat sayısı bazı örneklerde daha fazla tutulmuştur. Merzifon Kara Mustafa Paşa Kervansarayı (XVII. yüzyıl) dört katlı bir yapıdır ve her kat ayrı bir işleve sahiptir.
Osmanlı mimarisinde Selçuklu kervansaraylarından farklı olarak kale görünümünden uzaklaşılmış, yapının dışarıyla bağlantısı artmıştır. Kervansaray olarak tasarlanan, cephesinde dükkânların yer aldığı kervansaraylar Osmanlı devrine hastır. Erzurum Rüstem Paşa Kervansarayı’nda ikinci kat bedesten olarak inşa edilmiş, Mimar Sinan’ın yapısı Lüleburgaz Sokullu Mehmed Paşa Külliyesi’ndeki (971/1564) ve Payas’taki II. Selim Külliyesi’nde (982/1574) kervansarayla bedesten dua kubbesiyle birleştirilmiştir. Bu külliyelerde merkezde bedesten bulunmakta ve bir tarafında kervansaray, diğer tarafında da cami, hamam vb. yapılar yer almaktadır. Klasik dönemin kervansarayları arasında Büyükçekmece’de Sultan Süleyman Han Kervansarayı (974/1566-67) ve Ilgın’da Lala Mustafa Paşa Külliyesi’nin kervansarayı (992/1584) bulunmaktadır. XVI. yüzyıl Anadolu külliye mimarisi içinde kervansarayların önemli bir yeri olduğu anlaşılmaktadır.
XVI. yüzyılın sonlarında başlayan Celâlî ayaklanmalarının bastırılmasının ardından I. Ahmed zamanında (1603-1617) yolların güvenliği sağlanmış ve ıssız yollar üzerinde kervansarayların çevresinde gelişen menziller kurulmuştur. Menzil kervansarayı niteliğindeki Ulubat gölü kenarında Issız Han (797/1394-95) ve Bilecik Gölpazarı’nda Mihal Bey Hanı (821/1418), giriş bölümüyle arkasındaki tonozlu mekândan oluşan plan şemasına sahip erken dönemin sayılı kervansaraylarındandır. Antakya’da Hüsnü Sabuncu Kervansarayı (XVI. yüzyıl), Bitlis-Adilcevaz Kögoz köyü Hüsrev Paşa Kervansarayı (XVI. yüzyıl sonu) gibi yapılar, menzil yapıları mimarisinde dikdörtgen planlı mekânı üç ya da daha fazla nefli, tonoz veya düz toprak damla örtülü plan şemasının hâkim olduğunu göstermektedir. Menzil hanları içinde bir diğer grup, dikdörtgen mekânı pâye dizileriyle üç dört nefe bölünerek ahşap çatıyla örtülmüş yapılardır. Bu plan yaygın olarak kullanılmakla birlikte büyük boyutlu örnekleri azdır. Edirne’de Ekmekçizâde Ahmed Paşa Kervansarayı (1018/1609-10) ve Bilecik Vezirhan Köprülü Kervansarayı (XVII. yüzyıl ortası) bu şemanın uygulandığı yapılardır.
Anadolu Selçuklu kervansaraylarında sefer sırasında orduların konakladığı bilinmektedir. Osmanlı mimarisinde de askerî amaçla yapılmış, aynı zamanda büyük külliyelerin parçası olan kervansaraylar ayrı bir yer tutmaktadır. Bitlis’teki el-Aman (XVI. yüzyıl ortası) ve Ulukışla Öküz Mehmed Paşa Kervansarayı (1616-1619) askerî amaçla yapılmıştır. İncesu’daki Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa Kervansarayı’nın üstü açık bölümündeki sıra sıra ocaklar açıkta konaklamış askerlerin yemeklerinin pişmesi içindir ve bu yapı da değişik tipte bir askerî kervansaraydır.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2002 yılında Ankara’da basılan 25. cildinde, 299-302 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.