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KEŞİŞ Skip to content Bazı dinlerde ıssız bir yerde tek başına veya manastırda cemaat halinde münzevi hayat süren zâhidler için kullanılan terim.
Başta Hıristiyanlık ve Budizm olmak üzere birçok dinî gelenekte keşişlik önemli bir yer tutar. Farsça’da hıristiyanların âlim, zâhid ve ileri gelen din adamlarını tanımlamak için kullanılan keşîş kelimesinin, Süryânîce’de “pîr, şeyh, kâhin” anlamındaki karşılığı keşşîşâ , Ârâmîce’de keşîşâ dır (Muhammed Hüseyn-i Tebrîzî, Burhân-ı Ḳāṭıʿ , III, 1657). Arapça’da bu kelime kas ve kıssîs ile karşılanmış olup Türkçe’de Farsça kullanımı yaygınlık kazanmıştır. Arapça’da ayrıca nefis tezkiyesi için manastırda münzevi hayat yaşayan hıristiyan zâhidleri tanımlamak için râhib (korkan, çekinen) kelimesi de kullanılmaktadır (Tâcü’l-ʿarûs , “rhb” md.). Batı dillerinde keşiş ve keşişlikle ilgili kelimeler (İng. monasticism, monk) “ıssız; yalnız yaşayan” anlamlarındaki Grekçe monos kelimesinden türetilmiş, monasterion ve monastikos manastır keşişliğini, monakhos erkek keşişi, monastria kadın keşişi ifade etmek üzere kullanılmıştır. Budizm’de erkek ve kadın keşişler ortak olarak keşişlik kurumunu da belirten sangha kelimesiyle adlandırılır. Ayrıca erkek keşişlere upãsakas , kadın keşişlere upãsikas denir.
Hayat tarzı açısından keşişliği iki sınıfta ele almak mümkündür. a) Tek başına çöle, dağa ya da ormana çekilerek hiç kimse ile görüşmeden münzevi hayat yaşamayı tercih edenler (hermits). Bunlar arasında bir direğe, sütuna veya bir ağaç tepesine çıkarak ya da bir hücreye kapanarak insanlarla iletişim kurmadan tefekkürle meşgul olanlar da vardır. Günümüzde fazla yaygın olmayan bu keşişlik türüne daha ziyade Hindu ve Jainist geleneğinde rastlanmaktadır. Ayrıca hıristiyan literatüründe hermitler denilen Aziz Antony gibi gezgin keşişler de bu gruba girer. b) Umumiyetle manastırlarda bir tarikat disiplinine bağlı olarak cemaat hayatı sürdürmeyi ilke edinenler (cenobites). Genelde Hıristiyanlık’taki uygulama için kullanılan “monastisizm” terimi yanında Budizm’deki “sangha” ve Hinduizm’deki “samnyãsin” bu tarz bir keşişliği ifade etmektedir.
Keşişlikte en önemli hususların başında, keşişin sahip olduğu statüye uygun olarak hedeflediği özel amacı gerçekleştirmeye yönelik belirli bir program ve disipline göre yaşaması gelmektedir. Hıristiyanlık’ta Benedictine ve Budizm’de Vinaya kuralları keşişlerin yaşantısını tamamen özel bir dinî hedefe yöneltir. Keşişler bu özel statüye genellikle belirli bir giriş töreniyle adım atarlar. Keşişliğe başlayan kişi ayırt edici bir elbise giyer ve bazan vücuduna özel bir şekil verir (Budist keşişlerin başlarını kazıtmaları ya da hıristiyan keşişlerin Îsâ’nın başına konulan dikenli tacın temsili olarak başlarının tepe kısmındaki saçlarını kazıtmaları [tonsure] gibi). Yine keşişliğe başlayan kimse bazan özel birtakım nesneler taşır. Meselâ Budist keşişler bir asâ ve dilenme tası taşırken Jainist keşişler yürüdükleri yolu süpürmek için bir süpürge, bulundukları havayı süzmek için burunlarında bir perde ve içtikleri suyu süzmek için bir süzgeç taşırlar.
Açık bir yasaklama olmamasına, hatta Buda gibi manastır keşişliği kurucularının kadınlara keşişlik için izin vermesine rağmen keşişler genelde erkeklerden oluşur. Kadın, kişiyi günaha sevkeden bir varlık olarak kabul edildiği için keşişlerin evlenmesine izin verilmez. Yunanistan’da Athos dağında bulunan manastıra kadınların girmesi yasaktır. Bununla birlikte hem Hıristiyanlık’ta hem Budizm’de kadın keşişler ve kadın manastırları var olmuş, ancak kadınlarla erkeklerin birbirine karışması yasaklanmıştır. Keşişliğin ömür boyu sürmesi esas olmakla beraber farklı geleneklerde geçici olarak keşiş hayatı yaşama gibi uygulamalar da mevcuttur.
Bütün keşişlerin uyması gereken kuralların başında yoksulluk, alçak gönüllülük, bekârlık ve iffet gibi ihtirasları kırmayı, teslimiyet ve alçak gönüllülüğe teşvik etmeyi amaçlayan hususlar gelir. Keşişlerin mal mülk edinmesi, dünyaya bağlanması hoş karşılanmaz. Manastırda yaşayan keşişler cemaat kurallarına uymak ve bir yol göstericiye itaat etmek zorundadır. Öte yandan sessizlik, meditasyon, tefekkür, dua, oruç ve nefis terbiyesi gibi hususlara riayetle ilgili, uygulayana ve geleneklere göre değişiklik arzeden kurallar da bulunmaktadır.
Sembolizmin keşişlikte önemli bir yeri olduğu görülmektedir. Birçok âyin ve uygulamada ölüm ve yokluk temaları işlenir. Meditasyonla keşişler melekler, atalar ya da aydınlanmış kişiler âlemiyle temas kurmaya çalışır. İnziva hayatı hem keşişin kendisinin hem diğer insanların günahları için bir kefâret olarak değerlendirilir. Ilımlı bir inziva hayatını benimseyen keşişler çoğunluktadır; ancak dünya hayatından tamamıyla uzaklaşarak katı bir inziva hayatı yaşayanlar da vardır.
Keşişlerin cemaat halinde ruhban hayatı sürdükleri mekânlar olarak manastırlar inşa edilmiştir. Manastırlarda yaşayan keşişlerin (monk) dinî ve seküler meselelerdeki âmiri “abbot” (baba) adını alan rahiptir, rahibelerin (nun) idarî ve dinî açıdan âmiri de “abbess” denilen başrahibedir. Manastırlarda keşişlerin yeme, içme, dua, meditasyon, uyuma, çalışma gibi faaliyetleri belirli kurallara bağlanmıştır. Çan veya zil sesleri ya da başka işaretler keşişleri uyumlu bir programa yönlendirir. Manastırdaki hayat halktan toplanan yardım ve bağışlarla sürdürülebildiği gibi manastırların kendilerine ait sürekli gelirleri de olmuştur.
Manastırlarda yaşayan keşişler belirli bir disiplin içerisinde kutsal metinleri okuma, kopyalama ve araştırma çalışmalarını da yürütürler. Ayrıca dinî esasların manastır içinde ve dışında öğretilmesi, tebliğ edilmesi işini de üstlenirler. Bu konuda Budist viharaları önemli öğrenme merkezleri olmuştur. Belirli kurallara bağlı olarak keşişler normal halkla da ilişki içerisinde olabilirler. Keşişler inanan insanlara çeşitli dinî hizmetler yanında eğitim, sağlık ve tarım gibi alanlarda da yardımcı olur, inanmayanlara ise tebliğ faaliyetlerinde bulunurlar. Hıristiyan keşişleri, Ortaçağ’dan itibaren birer misyoner olarak Hıristiyanlığın yayılması amacıyla dünyanın en ücra köşelerine kadar her yere gidip faaliyet göstermişlerdir.
Zühde dayalı bir hayat tarzı, mistik düşünce, meditasyon vb. uygulamalar Hıristiyanlık öncesi dönemde, başta çeşitli gnostik gruplar olmak üzere Ortadoğu’nun birçok dinî geleneğinde de mevcut olmakla birlikte Hıristiyanlık’ta keşişliğin III. yüzyılda ortaya çıktığı kabul edilir. İskenderiyeli Origen (ö. 250) dua, iffet ve sıkı bir dinî hayata önem vermesinden dolayı “monastik teolojinin babası” diye adlandırılmasına rağmen Hıristiyanlık tarihinde münzevi keşişliğin Mısır’da çöle çekilerek zâhidâne bir hayatı tercih eden Aziz Antony ile başladığı belirtilir. Manastır hayatına dayalı keşişliğin ise 320 yıllarında yine Mısır’da Pachomius tarafından başlatıldığı ileri sürülür. Keşişlik Mısır’dan Sînâ yarımadasına, Filistin ve Suriye’ye de yayılmıştır. Bu bölgeler müslümanlar tarafından fethedildiğinde de önemli keşişlik merkezleri olmaya devam etmiştir. Kuzey Mezopotamya’da keşişliğin Pachomius’un talebelerinden Mar Augin tarafından kurulduğu kabul edilir. İzala dağındaki manastır bu bölgede keşişliğin merkezi haline gelmiştir. V. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru yöredeki manastırlarda bekârlık kuralı çiğnenerek erkek ve kadın keşişlerin birbiriyle evlenmeye başlayıp keşişlik kuralları ihlâl edilince bir Nestûrî rahip olan Kâşgarlı Abraham’ın hareketi gibi manastır hayatını düzenleyen kurallara yönelik bazı reform girişimlerinde de bulunulmuştur.
Anadolu’da keşişlik Caesarealı Basil (ö. 379) ve kız kardeşi Macrina’nın faaliyetleriyle yaygınlık kazandı. İstanbul ve X. yüzyıldan itibaren Athos dağı birer keşişlik merkezi haline geldi. Keşişler Doğu Avrupa’nın hıristiyanlaştırılmasında aktif rol oynadılar. Böylece Anadolu ve Yunanistan’dan keşişlik Doğu Avrupa ve Rusya’ya yayıldı.
Keşişlik kurumu Batı hıristiyanları arasında IV. yüzyıldan itibaren yayılmaya başladı. Jerome (ö. 420), Roma’daki aristokratlar içinde zühde dayalı hayat tarzını benimseyen gruplar meydana getirdi. IV. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru İtalya, Fransa ve İspanya’da çeşitli keşiş toplulukları oluşmuştu. Batı Hıristiyanlığındaki keşişlik kurumunda, Monte Cassino’da tesis ettiği manastırında keşişlik disipliniyle ilgili bazı kurallar belirleyen Nursialı Benedict’in (ö. 543) ayrı bir yeri vardır. Benedict sonrası dönemde Batı’da keşişlik hızla yayıldı. Papa I. Gregory’nin (ö. 604) bizzat kendisi bir keşişti. Ortaçağ’da birçok kralın keşişleri ve keşişlik teşkilâtını himaye etmesiyle keşişlik önemli bir kurum haline geldi, manastırlar hızla zenginleşti; ancak bunun tesiriyle keşişliğin temel öğretilerinden de uzaklaşılmaya başlandı. Bu durum çeşitli reform hareketlerine zemin hazırladı. İlk büyük reform hareketi Anianeli Benedict’e (ö. 821) aittir. Aynı şekilde X. yüzyıldaki Cluny ve XI. yüzyıldaki Cistercianlar hareketi keşişliğin aslına döndürülmesi amacını taşıyordu. Yine XI ve XII. yüzyıllarda Batı keşişliğinde gezgin keşiş vâizliğini tekrar canlandırma yönünde bir dizi atılım gerçekleştirildi. Romuald, Joan Gualbert ve Aziz Bruno gibi kişiler, Benediktinizm’i inzivâya dayalı hayat tarzıyla birleştirmeyi hedefleyen keşiş cemaatleri oluşturdular. XIII ve XIV. yüzyıllarda keşişlik gerilemeye başladı. XVI. yüzyılda Martin Luther ve diğer reformistler bu kuruma bazı eleştiriler yönelttiler. Buna karşı reform hareketleri sırasında keşişlik teşkilâtı yeniden gözden geçirilerek canlandırılmaya çalışıldı. XVIII. yüzyıl Aydınlanma döneminde keşişlik açısından gerileme yeniden başladı. Özellikle Fransız devriminden sonra manastırlar kapatıldı ve yakıldı. XIX ve XX. yüzyıllarda ise keşişlik teşkilâtı tekrar canlanmaya başladı.
Budizm’de keşişlik uygulamasının Buda tarafından başlatıldığı kabul edilir. Geleneksel inanca göre Buda tahtını terkedip münzevi zâhid olarak yaşadı ve etrafında birçok talebe toplandı. Buda sonrası dönemde keşişlik Budizm’in temel kurumu haline geldi; zira keşişler doğru inancın gerçek temsilcisi olarak kabul edildi. Başlangıçta Budist keşişler gezgin zâhid görünümündeydiler. Dilenme bu keşişlerin önemli özelliklerinden biriydi. Buda devrinde gezici keşişler ve yardım toplayıcıların bir araya geldiği bahçeler (aramalar) daha sonra manastır vihara halini aldı; mağaralardan oluşan basit ikamet yerleri de zamanla muhteşem mağara manastırlarına dönüştü, cemaat şeklinde bir arada yaşama yaygınlaştı (keşişlik kavramı ve uygulamaları hakkında İslâm’ın görüşü için bk. RUHBAN ).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Muhammed Hüseyn-i Tebrîzî, Burhân-ı Ḳāṭıʿ (nşr. Muhammed Muîn), Tahran 1342 hş., III, 1657.
Tâcü’l-ʿarûs , “rhb” md.
E. R. Hardy, “Monasticism”, A Dictionary of Christian Ethics (ed. J. Macquarrie), London 1967, s. 216-217.
M. Southwold, Buddhism in Life , Manchester 1983, s. 214-218.
P. Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism, Teaching, History and Practices , Cambridge 1990, s. 217-243.
A. S. Atiya, A History of Eastern Christianity , New York 1991, s. 291-294.
Documents of the Christian Church (ed. H. Bettenson), Oxford 1992, s. 116-132.
O. Zöckler, “Asceticsm, Christian”, ERE , II, 73-80.
F. Cabrol, “Monasticism”, a.e. , VIII, 781-797.
A. S. Geden, “Monasticism, Buddhist”, a.e. , VIII, 797-802.
a.mlf., “Monasticism, Hindu”, a.e. , VIII, 802-805.
G. Weckman, “Monasticism, An Overview”, ER , X, 35-41.
M. Collcut, “Monasticism, Buddhist”, a.e. , X, 41-44.
B. McGinn, “Monasticism, Christian”, a.e. , X, 44-50.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2002 yılında Ankara’da basılan 25. cildinde, 322-324 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.