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KOMŞU Skip to content
1/2 Müellif: MUSTAFA ÇAĞRICI Bölüme Git
Türkçe’deki komşu karşılığında İslâm ahlâk ve fıkıh literatüründe kullanılan câr kelimesi “yakın olma, yakınlık” anlamındaki civâr ve mücâvere masdarl…
2/2 Müellif: ALİ ŞAFAK Bölüme Git
FIKIH. Sosyal hayatın ayrılmaz bir parçasını teşkil eden komşuluk ilişkisi dinî, ahlâkî ve hukukî nitelikte bir dizi hak ve yükümlülük doğurur. Bunlar…
Türkçe’deki komşu karşılığında İslâm ahlâk ve fıkıh literatüründe kullanılan câr kelimesi “yakın olma, yakınlık” anlamındaki civâr ve mücâvere masdarlarından isim olup genellikle birbirine yakın meskenlerde yaşayan kişilerin ve ailelerin her birini ifade eder. Ayrıca aralarında meslek, iş yeri, arazi vb. yönlerden yakınlık bulunanlar hakkında da kullanılmaktadır (Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “cvr” md.; Tâcü’l-ʿarûs , “cvr” md.). Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de câr kelimesi terim anlamıyla bir âyette iki defa tekrar edilmiştir (en-Nisâ 4/36); hadislerde ise sıkça geçmektedir (Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “cvr” md.).
Sosyal hayatın aileden sonraki halkasını komşular oluşturduğundan her din ve kültürde komşuluk ilişkilerine dair kurallar bulunur. Tevrat’ta komşuların birbirine karşı hak ve ödevlerine dair emir ve yasaklara yer verilmiştir (meselâ bk. Çıkış, XX, 16-17; XXI, 14, 18; XXII, 9, 26; Levililer, XIX, 13, 15-18). Özellikle on emir içinde yer alan, “Komşunu kendin gibi seveceksin” buyruğu (Levililer, XIX, 18) bütün bu ödevlerin temelini oluşturur. Ancak konuya dair Tevrat’taki emir ve yasaklar yahudilerin kendi aralarındaki komşuluk ilişkileriyle sınırlı olarak algılanmış ve yabancılara karşı hissedilen antipati duyguları zamanla yahudi olmayan herkese karşı gerçek bir nefrete dönüşmüştür. Özellikle Talmud yazarları kural olarak yabancılar hakkında iyi niyet beslememek, onlara merhamet etmemek gerektiğini, putperestlerin komşu sayılmayacağını, yahudi olmayanların köpeklerden farksız olduğunu ifade etmişlerdir (DB , V, 683-684).
Hıristiyanlık’ta komşuluk kavramının evrensel bir içerik kazandığı görülmektedir. Matta İncili’ne göre (XXIII, 36-40) her şeriatta yer alan temel buyrukların en başta geleni kişinin Allah’ı bütün yüreğiyle sevmesi, ikincisi de komşusunu kendisi gibi sevmesidir. Hz. Îsâ, “Sen komşunu sevecek ve düşmanından nefret edeceksin” şeklindeki yahudi ahlâk öğretisini hatırlattıktan sonra, “Düşmanlarınızı sevin ve size eza edenlere dua edin” demiştir (Matta, V, 43-44).
İslâm’da komşu hakları genel olarak kul hakları (hukūk-ı ibâd) veya insan hakları (hukūk-ı âdemiyyîn) denilen haklar çerçevesinde ele alınır, bu haklarla ilgili emir ve yasaklar komşuluk ilişkilerini de bağlar (bk. HAK ). Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de Allah’a imanı emreden ve şirki yasaklayan ifadelerin hemen arkasından sıralanan ahlâk emirleri arasında ana babaya iyi davranmaktan sonra komşuya iyilik yer almaktadır (en-Nisâ 4/36). Müfessirler bu âyette geçen komşu kavramı hakkında değişik yorumlar nakletmişlerdir. Meselâ Evzâî’nin bir evin farklı yönlerinde bulunan kırkar evi o eve komşu saydığı belirtilir. Bazı hadislere ve Hz. Ali’ye isnat edilen bir rivayete dayanarak bir evden bağırıldığında sesin duyulabildiği bütün evlerin komşu sayılması gerektiği belirtilmişse de bu husustaki rivayetlerin sıhhati tartışmalı olduğundan bu görüşe itibar edilmemiştir (Abdurrahman b. Ahmed b. Muhammed b. Fâyi‘, s. 33-34). Câr kelimesiyle aynı kökten bir fiilin Ahzâb sûresindeki (33/60) bağlamından hareketle bu sınırı genişleterek bir mahallede, hatta bir beldede oturan insanların birbirinin komşusu sayılması gerektiğini söyleyenler de vardır. Ancak âyetlerde ve sahih hadislerde komşuluğun sınırıyla ilgili açık bir bilgi bulunmadığını, bu sınırla ilgili farklı ölçüler veren rivayetlerin sıhhatinin kuşkulu olduğunu belirten birçok âlim kimlerin komşu sayılacağını örfün belirlediği görüşünü tercih etmişlerdir (meselâ bk. İbn Kudâme, VIII, 537; Ali b. Süleyman el-Merdâvî, VII, 243; Âlûsî, V, 29).
Yaygın yoruma göre Nisâ sûresinin 36. âyetinde geçen “yakın komşu” ile evleri en yakında bulunan komşular, “uzak komşu” ile de nisbeten daha uzakta oturanlar kastedilmiştir. İlkiyle akrabalık bağı bulunan, ikincisiyle akraba olmayan komşuların veya ilkiyle müslüman, ikincisiyle gayri müslim komşuların kastedildiği şeklinde daha başka yorumlar da yapılmıştır (Zemahşerî, I, 267-268; Şevkânî, I, 521). Kurtubî bu son yorumu da sahih bir yorum olarak değerlendirir; ayrıca âyetteki “ihsân” kelimesinin yerine göre komşunun mutluluğunu ve kederini paylaşma, birlikte dostça yaşama, ona eziyet etmeme ve onu himaye etme gibi erdemli davranışları içerdiğini belirtir (el-Câmiʿ , V, 183-184). Hadislerde de komşuluğun önemini ve komşu haklarını anlatan çeşitli açıklamalar bulunmaktadır. Bunların en dikkate değer olanı, “Cebrâil, komşu hakkı üzerinde o kadar önemle durdu ki neredeyse komşuyu komşuya mirasçı yapacak sandım” meâlindeki hadistir (Buhârî, “Edeb”, 28; Müslim, “Birr”, 140, 141). Diğer hadislerde de komşusunun, kendisine kötülük yapmasından korktuğu kimselerin tam olarak iman etmiş olamayacağı (Buhârî, “Edeb”, 29; Müslim, “Îmân”, 73), Allah katında en hayırlı komşunun, komşularına en çok iyilik eden kimse olduğu (Tirmizî, “Birr”, 28) bildirilmekte, ayrıca komşuların, en yakın olanlardan başlamak üzere birbirine hediye vermeleri de öğütlenmektedir (Buhârî, “Şüfʿa”, 23, “Hibe”, 16).
İnsan ilişkilerine dair âyet ve hadisler bütün olarak dikkate alındığında İslâm ahlâkında, yabancılara karşı nefret telkin eden ve onları aşağılayan yahudi telakkisinin âdil ve ahlâkî görülmediği, buna karşılık İncil’in, “Düşmanlarınızı sevin” buyruğunun da gerçekçi bulunmadığı anlaşılmaktadır. Bunun en açık kanıtlarından biri, “Bir topluluğa duyduğunuz öfke sizi adaletten sapmaya sevketmesin. Adaletli olun; bu, takvâya daha uygundur” meâlindeki âyettir (el-Mâide 5/8). “Allah’a ve âhiret gününe inanan kimse komşusuna eziyet etmesin” (Buhârî, “Riḳāḳ”, 23; “Nikâḥ”, 80; Müslim, “Îmân”, 74, 75); “Allah’a ve âhiret gününe inanan kimse komşusuna iyilik etsin” (Buhârî, “Edeb”, 31; Müslim, “Îmân”, 74, 76, 77) meâlindeki örneklerde de görüldüğü gibi hadislerde komşuluk kavramının din ayırımı yapılmaksızın mutlak olarak kullanılmasını dikkate alan âlimler, gayri müslim komşuların da komşuluk haklarının bulunduğu görüşünde birleşmiştir (Kurtubî, V, 188). Özellikle komşuları üç gruba ayırarak akraba olan müslüman komşuların akrabalık, dindaşlık ve komşuluk hakları, akraba olmayan müslüman komşuların dindaşlık ve komşuluk hakları, gayri müslim komşuların ise komşuluk haklarının bulunduğunu belirten hadis (Aclûnî, I, 328), sıhhati tartışmalı olsa bile konuyla ilgili sahih hadislerin ruhuna uygun düşmesi, ayrıca bu husustaki genel İslâmî telakkiyi yansıtması bakımından önemli görülmüş ve konu hakkındaki hemen bütün kaynaklarda bu rivayete yer verilmiştir.
Ahlâk kitaplarında ve özellikle İbn Ebü’d-Dünyâ’nın Mekârimü’l-aḫlâḳ ’ı, İbrâhim b. Muhammed el-Beyhakī’nin el-Meḥâsin ve’l-mesâvî ’si, İbn Abdülberr’in Behcetü’l-mecâlis ’i gibi antolojik eserlerde komşuluk âdâbına dair sözlere yer verilmiştir. Konuyla ilgili eserlerin en önemlilerinden olan Gazzâlî’nin İḥyâʾü ʿulûmi’d-dîn ’inde, “Komşuluk Hakları” başlığı altında konuya dair hadisler de zikredilerek komşulukla ilgili başlıca haklar ve görevler, ahlâkî ve medenî kurallar sıralanmıştır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “cvr” md.
Tâcü’l-ʿarûs , “cvr” md.
Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “cvr” md.
H. Lesêtre, “Prochain”, DB , V, 683-684.
Buhârî, “Riḳāḳ”, 23, “Nikâḥ”, 80, “Edeb”, 28, 29, 31, “Şüfʿa”, 23, “Hibe”, 16.
Müslim, “Îmân”, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, “Birr”, 140, 141.
Tirmizî, “Birr”, 28.
İbn Ebü’d-Dünyâ, Mekârimü’l-aḫlâḳ: The Noble Qualities of Character (nşr. J. A. Bellamy), Wiesbaden 1973, s. 80-87.
Taberî, Câmiʿu’l-beyân , V, 78-82.
İbrâhim b. Muhammed el-Beyhakī, el-Meḥâsin ve’l-mesâvî (nşr. Muhammed Süveyd), Beyrut 1408/1988, s. 560-562.
İbn Abdülber, Behcetü’l-mecâlis , I, 289-294.
Gazzâlî, İḥyâʾ , II, 212-215.
Zemahşerî, el-Keşşâf (Beyrut) , I, 267-268.
İbn Kudâme, el-Muġnî (nşr. Abdullah b. Abdülmuhsin et-Türkî – Abdülfettâh M. el-Hulv), Kahire 1412/1992, VIII, 537.
Kurtubî, el-Câmiʿ , V, 183-189.
Ali b. Süleyman el-Merdâvî, el-İnṣâf fî maʿrifeti’r-râciḥ mine’l-ḫilâf (nşr. M. Hâmid el-Fıkī), Beyrut 1376/1957, VII, 243.
Aclûnî, Keşfü’l-ḫafâʾ , I, 328.
Şevkânî, Fetḥu’l-ḳadîr , Beyrut 1412/1991, I, 521.
Âlûsî, Rûḥu’l-meʿânî , V, 29.
Abdurrahman b. Ahmed b. Muhammed b. Fâyi‘, Aḥkâmü’l-civâr fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî , Cidde 1416/1995, s. 31-43.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2002 yılında Ankara’da basılan 26. cildinde, 157-158 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
FIKIH. Sosyal hayatın ayrılmaz bir parçasını teşkil eden komşuluk ilişkisi dinî, ahlâkî ve hukukî nitelikte bir dizi hak ve yükümlülük doğurur. Bunlardan dinî ve ahlâkî nitelikte olanlarda fertlerin dinî duyarlılıkları, örf ve toplumsal sağduyu daha belirleyici olduğu ve diyanî yön ön plana çıktığı için fıkıhta altüst komşuluğu ile sınır komşuluğunun doğurduğu hukukî nitelikte hak ve yükümlülükler üzerinde daha ayrıntılı biçimde durulmuştur.
Eşya hukuku terimi olarak bir akar üzerinde diğer bir akar lehine kurulmuş sınırlı aynî hakkı ifade eden irtifakların neredeyse tamamı komşu akarlar arasında cereyan eden ve bu akarların sahiplerini de yakından ilgilendiren haklardır. Su alma (kaynak), geçit, inşaat, su geçirme ve akıtma, kiriş koyma gibi haklar böyledir. Hatta komşu akarın manzarasını engellememek için yapı yapmama yükümlülüğü veya akar içindeki mahrem yerlerin görülmesini önlemek için sütre dikebilme hakkı da bu grupta yer alır. Klasik kaynaklarda geçmemekle birlikte bazı çağdaş yazarların eserlerinde irtifak hakları başlığı altında yer verdiği “hakku’l-civâr” da (komşuluk hakkı) birbirine komşu iki akardan her birinin diğeri üzerinde mâliklerinin bu akarları kullanımı esnasında birbirine zarar verecek taşkınlıklardan kaçınmasını öngörmektedir (bk. İRTİFAK ). Komşuluk hukukunun önemli bir yönünü teşkil eden bütün bu haklar esasında, mülkiyet hakkından yararlanma sırasında komşuya açıkça zarar veren her türlü davranışın engellenmesi amacıyla getirilmiş birtakım hukukî sınırlamaları ifade eder.
Kural olarak herkes kendi mülkünde dilediği gibi tasarrufta bulunma hakkına sahip olmakla birlikte mülkiyet hakkından yararlanma konusunda bazı kısıtlamalar söz konusudur. İslâm hukukçuları arasında komşuluk münasebetiyle mülkiyet hakkının sınırlandırılması konusunda iki farklı yaklaşım mevcuttur. Bunlardan ilki mülkiyet hakkının doğrudan komşuluk sebebiyle kısıtlanamayacağı ve herkesin kendi akarı üzerinde başkasının hakkı taalluk etmediği sürece dilediği gibi tasarrufta bulunabileceği şeklinde olup Şâfiî ve ilk dönem Hanefî hukukçularına aittir. Bu durumda komşular birbirlerinin akarı üzerinde sırf komşuluktan doğan hiçbir hakka sahip değildir. Bu konudaki ikinci görüş ise Mâlikî, Hanbelî ve sonraki Hanefîler’in geneline ait olup akar mâliklerinin çevresindeki komşularına açıkça zarar verecek tasarrufların kanun tarafından engelleneceği yönündedir. Mecelle açık zararı (zarar-ı fâhiş) binaya zarar veren, yani binaya zayıflık getiren ve yıkılmasına sebep olan ya da temel ihtiyaçları, yani oturma hakkı gibi binadan elde edilecek aslî menfaatleri engelleyen şeyler olarak tanımlamıştır (md. 1199). Buna göre meselâ bir binaya bitişik demirci dükkânı veya değirmenin binayı zayıflatması, fırının dumanından evde oturulamayacak derecede rahatsız olmak, komşunun evine akan veya taşan bozuk kanalizasyon boruları (md. 1200), komşunun ışığını tamamen kesmek (md. 1201) gibi hususlar fâhiş zarar içinde değerlendirilmiştir.
Bir binanın alt ve üst katlarını paylaşan kat mâliklerinin mülkiyet haklarında da bazı kısıtlamalar söz konusudur. Buna göre üst kat mâlikinin alt kat üzerinde inşaat hakkı, alt kat mâlikinin de üst kat üzerinde çatı hakkı vardır. Çatı hakkı, üst kat mâlikinin katını sürekli mevcut tutarak alt katın çatısını yağmur, güneş ve zarara yol açabilecek diğer unsurlardan koruması borcunu ifade eder. Katlar ikiden fazla olup her biri farklı mâliklere ait olursa birbiri üzerindeki katlar arasında yukarıda zikredilen haklar bulunduğu gibi bütün katlar arasında da karşılıklı haklar ve yükümlülükler vardır. Kat mâlikleri birbirlerine zarar verecek tasarruflarda bulunamazlar. Meselâ alt kat sahibi binanın zayıflamasına sebep olacak yeni pencere ve kapılar açamaz, avlusunda kuyu veya çukur kazamaz. Üst kat sahibi de alt katın veya temelin taşıyamayacağı yükleri yükleyemez, kat çıkamaz.
Komşuluk ilişkilerinden doğan mülkiyet hakkının sınırlandırılmasıyla ilgili bir diğer hüküm ise bir gayri menkulün satılması halinde o gayri menkulün ortak mâlikine, irtifak hakkı sahibine veya bitişik komşusuna aynı bedelle öncelikle satın alma hakkını ifade eden şüf‘a (ön alım) hakkıyla ilgilidir. Yalnızca Hanefî mezhebine mensup hukukçular tarafından benimsenen görüşe göre satılan akara bütün sınırlarında veya sınırının bir kısmında akarı bitişik olan bütün komşular için eşit derecede şüf‘a hakkı vardır. Bu hükmün dayanağı Hz. Peygamber’den rivayet edilen, “Bir evin komşusu o eve şefî‘ olmaya herkesten daha lâyıktır” şeklindeki hadistir (Müsned , IV, 388, 390; Tirmizî, “Aḥkâm”, 32, 33). Satılan akarın ortağı ya da irtifak hakkı sahibinin bulunmaması durumunda bitişik komşular kendi aralarında eşit olarak şüf‘a hakkına sahip olurlar. Komşuluk sınırının uzunluğu veya kısalığı ya da yatay veya dikey olması önemli değildir (bk. ŞÜF‘A ).
Diğer taraftan aile mahremiyeti ve özel hayatın gizliliği açısından da komşuluk ilişkisinden birtakım haklar ve yükümlülükler doğmaktadır. Buna göre bir evden beklenilen oturma, dinlenme ve kadınların serbestçe hareket edebilme imkânlarına bir kısıtlama getirilemez. Aile mahremiyetini ihlâl edici davranışlarda bulunulamaz (Mecelle , md. 1205).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “cvr” md.
Tehânevî, Keşşâf , I, 207.
Müsned , IV, 388, 390.
Tirmizî, “Aḥkâm”, 32, 33.
İbn Hazm, el-Muḥallâ , Kahire 1390/1970, X, 36-38.
Serahsî, el-Mebsûṭ , XV, 21.
Kâsânî, Bedâʾiʿ , V, 5.
İbn Kudâme, el-Muġnî , V, 461; VI, 556-557.
Bezzâzî, el-Fetâvâ (el-Fetâva’l-Hindiyye içinde), VI, 439.
Tecrid Tercemesi , VII, 19-20.
Kastallânî, İrşâdü’s-sârî , Kahire 1307, IV, 119-121.
el-Fetâva’l-Hindiyye , VI, 119.
Mecelle , md. 1008-1044, 1192-1212.
Bilmen, Kamus2 , VII, 176-180.
M. Ebû Zehre, el-Milkiyye ve naẓariyyetü’l-ʿaḳd fi’ş-şerîʿati’l-İslâmiyye , Kahire 1977, s. 101-110.
Ali Şafak, Hadislerde ve Mukâyeseli Hukukta Şuf‘a Hakkı , Erzincan 1981, s. 98-102.
M. Mustafa Şelebî, el-Medḫal fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî , Beyrut 1405/1985, s. 364-372.
Hayreddin Karaman, Mukayeseli İslâm Hukuku , İstanbul 1987, III, 87-89, 92-96, 132-135.
Abdurrahman b. Ahmed b. Muhammed b. Fâyi‘, Aḥkâmü’l-civâr fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî , Cidde 1416/1995, tür.yer.
Ali el-Hafîf, Aḥkâmü’l-muʿâmelâti’ş-şerʿiyye , [baskı yeri ve tarihi yok] (Dârü’l-fikri’l-Arabî), s. 69-71, 115-117.
W. Montgomery Watt, “Id̲j̲āra”, EI2 (İng.) , III, 1017-1018.
“Civâr”, Mv.F , XVI, 216-225.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2002 yılında Ankara’da basılan 26. cildinde, 158-159 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.