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İSTEFE Skip to content Yunanistan’da Thebai şehrinin Osmanlılar dönemindeki adı.
Yunanistan’ın orta kesiminde, Atina’nın 70 km. kuzeybatısındaki geniş ve verimli Boiotia ovasının kenarında alçak bir sırtta yer almakta olup geniş bir tarım bölgesinin ticaret şehridir. 4000 yıla uzanan tarihiyle Yunanistan’ın en eski şehirlerinden biri olan İstefe, Osmanlı döneminde Eğriboz sancağına bağlı kaza merkeziydi. Aynı zamanda, özellikle XVII ve XVIII. yüzyıllarda kalabalık müslüman nüfusu ve Osmanlı mimarisinin en önemli eserlerine sahip olmasıyla bölgesel önemi haiz bir İslâmî merkez durumundaydı. “Eis tin Polin”in İstanbul, “Eis tin Ko”nun İstanköy olması gibi şehrin Osmanlıca adı, “Eis tin Thive” tarzında popüler Yunanca telaffuzundan gelmektedir. “İstifas” şekline milâttan sonra 1100 yılından beri yazılı kaynaklarda rastlanmaktadır. XII. yüzyılda Arap coğrafyacısı İdrîsî şehrin ismini “İstibas” olarak zikretmektedir. Bu kelime Türkçe’ye İstife veya İstefe şeklinde geçmiştir. Şehrin tarihî kısmı üç yanı derin uçurumlarla, doğu ve batı taraflarından küçük ırmaklarla çevrili badem şeklindeki bir plato üzerinde bulunur. Bu platoya, Yunan mitolojisine göre Zeus tarafından yakalanan kız kardeşi Europa’yı bulmak için buraya gönderilen ve şehrin kurucusu olan Fenike Kralı Agenor’un oğlu Kadmos’un adına nisbetle Kadmeia denilmiştir.
Kadmeia platosu birçok akarsuyun kaynağıdır. Bölgenin stratejik önemi ve verimli arazisi sebebiyle milâttan önce 6000-3000 yılından beri iskâna açık olduğu tesbit edilmiştir. İstefe’nin yerleşim tarihi, bir asrı aşan ayrıntılı ve yoğun arkeolojik kazılardan dolayı çok iyi bilinmektedir. Kadmeia tepesinde itina ile çizilmiş duvar resimleriyle büyük bir saraya ait kalıntılar, yazılı tabletler ve birçok Bâbil mührü bulundu (m.ö. 1450-1435). Antik Thebai, hemen hemen bütün Yunanistan’ı askerî ve siyasî bakımdan hâkimiyeti altına alan Epaminondas’ın (m.ö. 372-362) hükümranlığı altında milâttan önce IV. yüzyılda en parlak çağına ulaştı. Bu dönemde Kadmeia tepesini içine alacak tarzda 7 km. uzunluğundaki şehir suru inşa edildi. Şehrin bu akropolisi o sıralarda 20.000’den fazla insanı barındırıyordu. Chaironea Savaşı’ndan (m.ö. 338) sonra Makedonyalı Kral Filip Thebai’yi aldı. Onun ölümünün (m.ö. 336) ardından şehir halkı ayaklandı, fakat oğlu Büyük İskender tarafından kısa bir kuşatmayla yeniden ele geçirildi. Büyük İskender şehri tamamen yıktı ve nüfusun büyük çoğunluğunu ya öldürdü veya köleleştirdi. Milâttan önce 316’da Diadok Kassander, Thebai’yi 5000 nüfusu barındırabilecek bir yerleşim merkezi olarak yeniden inşa etti. Milâttan önce 87 yılında şehir Romalılar tarafından alındı ve milâttan sonra IV. yüzyıla kadar onların hâkimiyetinde kaldı. Bu dönemde Thebai’nin nüfusu 2000 ile 5000 arasında değişmekteydi.
Hıristiyanlık Thebai’ye erken dönemlerinde ulaştı. İddiaya göre İncil yazarlarından havâri Luka Thebai’de öldü ve orada gömüldü. Thebai piskoposu 325’te ilk İznik Konsili’ne katıldı. 400 yılından hemen önce şehir, Yunanistan’ın başka yerlerinde büyük tahribat yapan Vizigot Kralı Alarik tarafından kuşatıldıysa da alınamadı. Şehir Hıristiyanlığın ilk dönemlerinden itibaren hızla geriledi. Kadmeia platosunun büyük bir kısmı mezarlık haline geldi; nüfus 2000’lere düştü. 551’de büyük bir deprem şehri yerle bir etti. Iustinianos tarafından yeniden inşa edilen şehir, VII ve VIII. yüzyıllardaki Slav istilâsında da varlığını sürdürdü. 870’lerde Thebai, Bizans’ın Hellas “tema”sının merkezi oldu. 873-874’te Bizans Valisi Leon, Orchomenos-Skripou adıyla bugün hâlâ ayakta duran büyük bir kilise ve manastır yaptırdı. Bu yıllarda Thebai öneminden dolayı özerk başpiskoposluk makamı haline getirildi.
Orta Bizans döneminde Thebai coğrafyacı İdrîsî’nin belirttiği gibi (Géographie , II, 123) gelişen bir şehirdi. 1160’ta Tudela (Tutîle) hahamı Benjamin, burada çoğu ipek dokuyucusu olan 2000 yahudinin varlığından bahseder. Şehrin o zamanki zenginliği, Thebai dışında 1150’lerde yapılan Zagmata Manastırı’na ait binalarda hâlâ görülebilmektedir. 1147’de Sicilya Kralı II. Roger şehri ele geçirip yağmalattı ve ipek işçilerinin çoğunu Sicilya’ya sürdü, fakat şehir kısa zamanda tekrar canlandı.
1204’te Kostantinopol’ün Haçlılar tarafından fethi ve Bizans İmparatorluğu’nun parçalanmasıyla Haçlı Prensi Othon de la Roche, Thebai ve ona bağlı yerleri ele geçirdi. 1225’te Saint Omerli II. Nicholas şehri aldı. Onun hâkimiyetinde Kadmeia platosunu çevreleyen duvarlar yeniden yapıldı ve muhteşem bir saray inşa edildi. Kadmeia’nın en kuzeyindeki Frenk Kulesi denen bina o döneme ait tek kalıntıdır. 1311’de Katalanlar (İspanyol paralı askerleri) şehri ve çevresini ele geçirdiler; 1331’de Gauthier de Brienne ile çatışmalarında sarayı yıktılar. 740’ta (1339-40) Thebai’nin etrafındaki arazi Aydınoğlu Umur Bey’in askerleri tarafından yağmalandı. Türkler’in daha sonra bölgeyle olan irtibatları farklı şartlarda ortaya çıktı. Katalanlar, Arnavut ve Türk paralı askerleriyle güçlendiler. Türk-Katalan tanışıklığı ve başarılı yardımlaşması, onların Gelibolu’yu üs olarak seçtikleri 1304-1305 yılına kadar gider. 1363’te Eğriboz’daki Venedik beyleriyle mücadeleleri zamanında Katalan şefi Roger de Lluria, Türk askerî güçlerini yardıma çağırdı. 1378’de Eğriboz’dan gelen Venedik saldırılarıyla sürekli tehdit edilen şehir, Juan de Urtubia kumandasındaki bir başka maceracı İspanyol askerî güç olan Grand Compagnie of Navarra tarafından zaptedildiyse de birkaç yıl sonra Floransalı Acciajuoli ailesine teslim edildi. Bu aile Thebai, Atina ve Orta Yunanistan’ı 1460’a kadar bağımsız bir eyalet (Katolik Frank prensliği) olarak elinde tuttu. XIV. yüzyılda Thebai ve ona bağlı Boiotia gibi bölgeler büyük bir arazinin tahribine yol açan savaşlardan, özellikle de gerilla savaşlarından dolayı sarsıldı. 871 (1466-67) yılına ait en eski Osmanlı tahrir defterinde bölgede Rumlar’ın oturduğu sadece altı köy kaydedilmiştir (BA, MAD , nr. 66). Diğer bölgeler ise hayvan yetiştiren yarı göçebe Arnavutlar ile meskûndu; bunlar, 1390-1420 yılları arasında boşalan bölgeyi yeniden iskân için getirtilmişti. Bu sırada şehir, nüfusunun büyük bir kısmını kaybetmişti.
1435 yılından sonra Acciajuoli prensleri Osmanlılar’a tâbi olmuşlardır. Daha 1403’te Antonio Acciajuoli, 791 (1388-89) yılından beri Tesalya’ya hâkim olan Osmanlı kuvvetleriyle birlikte hareket ederek Mora’daki Korint’e sefer düzenlemişti. 848’deki (1444) Varna krizi esnasında Mora’nın Bizanslı despotu İzdin (Lamia) Boiotia ve Thebai’yi alarak yağmaladı. 1446 yılının sonbaharında II. Nerio Acciajuoli’nin isteği üzerine II. Murad ordusuyla birlikte Thebai’ye geldi ve iki ordu birleşerek Bizans Morası’na sefere çıktı. 1451’de II. Nerio öldü, yerine Donna Chiara’nın nâibliğinde bulunan küçük oğlu Francesco geçti. Fakat Donna Chiara kısa bir süre sonra Rum tebaanın sevmediği Franco Acciajuoli tarafından öldürüldü. Hemen ardından çağrılan Osmanlılar 860’ta (1456) Atina’yı aldılar, Thebai’yi de Franco’ya bıraktılar. 1460 yılında bir komplo söylentisinden sonra kendisi ve ordusu Osmanlı hizmetinde olduğu bir sırada Fâtih Sultan Mehmed onun hâkimiyetine son verdi. Böylece Thebai ve Boiotia savaş olmadan Osmanlı topraklarına katıldı. Osmanlılar, Attica ve Boiotia’daki Katolik kilise adamlarını (Franklar) sürgün ederken camiye çevrilenler (Livadya, Atina-Parthenon gibi) hariç Ortodoks cemaatine ait yerel kiliseleri tanıdılar ve varlıklarını desteklediler.
Osmanlı idaresi altında Thebai, İstefe adıyla anılmaya başlandı ve Tırhala sancağının kaza merkezi yapıldı; 875 (1470) yılında daha önemli bir şehir olan Eğriboz’un ele geçirilmesinden sonra bu adla anılan sancağa bağlandı. 870 (1466) yılına ait Tahrir Defteri ’ne göre o sıralarda şehirde küçük bir grup Bizans yahudisi ve hıristiyanlardan oluşan 487 hâne vardı. Şehirde duvar ve kale olmadığı için Osmanlı askerî garnizonu kurulmadı; ayrıca bu sıralarda sivil müslüman nüfus da yoktu. Osmanlı garnizonu ve sivil müslümanlar İzdin, Modonuç (Boudonitsa), Livadya, Atina ve Salona (Amphissa) gibi şehirlerle Eğriboz adasındaki Eğriboz ve Kızıl Hisar (Castel Rosso) kasabalarına yerleşmişlerdi. Thebai’nin surlarının 1460’tan önceki kargaşa döneminde yıkılmış olması ihtimali kesinlik kazanmamaktadır. 1078 (1668) yılında şehri ziyaret eden Evliya Çelebi, Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey’in savaşarak şehri Venedikliler’den alıp tıpkı Büyük İskender’in yaptığı gibi surlarını yıktırdığını yazar. Evliya Çelebi’nin bu bilgileri bölge halkından almış olabileceği düşünüldüğünde anlattıklarının doğruluk payı kuvvetlenebilir. Mevcut tarih kitaplarında genellikle şehrin Osmanlı döneminde büyük bir gerileme kaydettiği belirtilirse de XVI. yüzyıl tahrir defterleri bambaşka bir tablo göstermektedir. Gerçekte XVI ve XVII. yüzyıllar şehrin en müreffeh dönemleridir.
905’te (1499) İnebahtı’ya (Lepanto) giderken buraya uğrayan II. Bayezid müslüman sivil nüfusun iskânını emretmiş olmalıdır. 911 (1506) yılına ait Tahrir Defteri ’ndeki kayıtlardan, hıristiyanların nüfusunun artarak 1047 hâneye yükseldiği tesbit edilmektedir. Bunların arasında Leka, Gjin ve Pala gibi Arnavut isimleriyle Katolikler’e ait kadın ismi olan Françeska ve erkek ismi olan Françesko adlarını taşıyan kimseler mevcuttur. Şehirdeki Rum nüfusa ait isimler, buraya etraftaki köylerden ve bölgelerden insanların göç ettiğini göstermekte ve bu da şehrin genişlediğine ve ekonominin hızla iyileştiğine delâlet etmektedir. Yahudiyân-ı Atîk mahallesinde on yedi hâne Bizans döneminden kalma yahudi oturmakta iken “Efrenc”den geldiği belirtilen otuz hâne Yahudiyân-ı Cedîd mahallesinde yerleşmişti. Sivil müslüman grup ise aralarında demirci, terzi ve yedi adet mühtedi bulunan yirmi bir hâneden ibaretti. Bunlar, II. Bayezid devrinin önemli şahsiyetlerinden Yâkub Bey tarafından yaptırılmış olan hamam, kervansaray ve cami etrafında toplanmışlardı.
XVI. yüzyılda İstefe, Orta Yunanistan’ın en büyük şehirlerinden biri oldu. Hâne sayısı 977’de (1570) 1497 idi. Böylece 871’de (1466) 2300 olan nüfusu sürekli bir artış sonucu 911’de (1505) 5300’e ve 1570’te ise 7500 kişiye ulaşmış oldu. Gerçekten de bu nüfus Büyük İskender’in şehri yıkmasından beri en kalabalık olanıdır. XVI. yüzyılın tahrirleri aynı zamanda İslâmî hayatın varlığını ve gelişimini de göstermektedir. 1521’de yetmiş hâne müslüman varken bu sayı 1540’ta seksen bir, 1570’te ise 121 hâneye ulaşmıştı. 1570’te Yâkub Bey’in camisi, hamamı ve kervansarayı yanında Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman’ın vezirlerinden Kasım Paşa’nın mescid ve muallimhânesi, Bekir Hoca Mescidi, Hürrem Voyvoda Mescidi, Rüstem Voyvoda Mektebi ve Ali Kethüdâ Hamamı vardı. Bu gelişme XVII ve XVIII. yüzyıllarda da sürdü.
Şehrin nüfus artışı ekonomik gelişmeyle paralel olarak devam etti. 1506-1570 yılları arasında şehirde pamuk üretimi beş kat ve şarap üretimi iki kat arttı. Aynı dönemde ipek üretimi, su değirmenleri sayısı, pazar ve kantar gelirleri iki katına çıktı. Son dönemlere kadar bilinmeyen bu ekonomik refah, İstefeli hıristiyanların şehre has ikon ve fresk ekolünü oluşturmalarına yol açtı. Frangos Katalanos ve Frangos Kontaris adlı İstefeli meşhur sanatkârların eserleri Tesalya, Epir, Athos ve Boiotia’daki manastır ve kiliselerin duvarlarını hâlâ süslemektedir. Bu devirde Bizans sonrası Yunan sanatının en güzel örnekleri verilmiştir. Aynı dönemde şehir dışındaki Zagmata Manastırı önemli ölçüde bir gelire sahipti ve bu gelir sayesinde bugün hâlâ ayakta duran ikinci bir kilise yapıldı. 1992 yılında yapılan kazılarda ortaya çıkarılan pek çok yüksek kaliteli İznik ve Kütahya seramiği ile Ming dönemine ait birkaç parça Çin porseleni şehrin o sıralardaki refah seviyesini ispatlamaktadır.
XVII. yüzyılda bölgede güvenliğin gittikçe bozulması, nüfusun azalması ve özellikle zengin Boiotia’nın alçak bölgelerindeki halkın büyük oranda çiftliklere bağlanmasıyla köylülerin önemli bir kısmı şehre göç edip İslâmiyet’i seçti. Fransız seyyahı Sieur du Loir 1654’te İstefe’nin Atina kadar büyük, fakat hayat şartları bakımından daha da gelişmiş bir şehir olduğunu yazar. 1676’da buraya gelen Lyonlu Jacop Spon ve Durham Katedrali başpapazı George Wheler, Kadmeia platosundaki yıkılmış şehir surlarını tasvir ettikten sonra sur içinde sağlam evlerin inşa edildiğini ve bunların, ülkenin başka taraflarındaki evlerden daha iyi ve yüksek olduğunu belirtirler. Bu seyyahlar şehirde sadece iki cami, birçok kilise ve iki han gördüklerini, Türkler’in nüfusun küçük kısmını oluşturduğunu da ifade etmektedirler. Şehirdeki üretim faaliyetleri arasında en iyilerinin 10 akçe, normal olanların 5 akçeye alıcı bulabildiği lüle taşından yapılmış pipoları özellikle zikrederler. Osmanlı İstefesi’nin en ayrıntılı tasvirini ise 1079’da (1668) şehirde bulunan Evliya Çelebi yapmıştır. Evliya Çelebi, şehir surlarının durumu hakkında mükemmel müşahedelerini nakletmekle kalmayıp camileri de bir bir anlatır. Bunların arasında öncelikle sanat değeri olan Yâkub Bey Camii, Kasım Bey Camii, Derviş Yazıcı Camii, çarşıda yeni yapılmış Eğribozlu Köse Ali Paşa’nın kardeşi Ahmed Paşa’nın adını taşıyan caminin adlarını verir ve bu sonuncusunun hepsinden büyük ve süslü olduğunu, camiyi yaptıranın avlusunda gömülü bulunduğunu, onun yanında İbrâhim Hanzâde İbrâhim Bey’in mezarının yer aldığını ve mezar taşındaki kitâbenin 1077 (1666-67) tarihini taşıdığını yazar. Bu binaların dışında altı mahalle mescidi, dört medrese, birçok mektep ve üç tekke vardır.
Şehirde mevcut iki handan biri, Vâlide Sultan (Hatice Turhan) tarafından İzdin’deki hassının geliriyle yaptırılmıştır. Evliya Çelebi şehirde altı müslüman, bir yahudi, on yedi hıristiyan mahallesi olduğunu zikreder. Bu mahallelerin adlarına 1052’den (1642) 1102’ye (1691) kadar olan cizye defterlerinde rastlanmaktadır. Evliya Çelebi, İstefe’deki hâne sayısını 2500’e kadar çıkarırsa da bunun mübalağalı olduğu söylenebilir. Onun evlerin zarif, süslemeli, taş yapılı ve geniş olduğuna dair sözleri Spon ve Wheler tarafından tasdik edilmektedir. Bütün Batılı seyyahların sadece iki camiyi zikretmesinin sebebi kısmen onların bu tür konularla fazla ilgilenmemeleri, kısmen de güneydoğudan şehre panoramik bakış açısında diğer camilerin görünmemesidir. Ahmed Paşa Camii, belki de Tesalya’nın güneyindeki bütün Osmanlı binaları içinde en büyük ve en güzel olanıdır. XVII. yüzyıl sonlarına doğru yapılmış Thebai Katedrali’ndeki Aziz Luka ikonu şimdi ortadan kalkmış olan bu binayı ayrıntılarıyla tasvir etmektedir. Caminin planı İstanbul’daki Yenicami’ninkine benzemektedir. Ortada merkez kubbe dört yarım kubbeyle desteklenmiş ve kıble duvarındaki dört küçük köşe kubbesi kaldırılmıştır. Bu cami, 992’de (1584) Tosya’da yapılan Abdurrahman Paşa Camii’ne de çok benzemektedir. İstefe’deki Ahmed Paşa Camii, Kadmeia platosunun en yüksek tepesine yapılmıştı ve çok uzaklardan görülebiliyordu. Yaptıran kişi hakkında fazla bir şey bilinmemektedir. Kardeşi Köse Ali Paşa, Mora sancak beyi ve 1083-1086 (1672-1675) yıllarında Osmanlı donanmasının kaptanpaşasıydı.
XVII. yüzyılın sonlarında ve XVIII. yüzyılın ilk yarısında şehir nüfusunda ciddi bir değişim olmuştur. 1745’ten hemen önce İngiliz seyyahı Richard Pococke İstefe’de 200 Rum, yetmiş yahudi hânesi olduğunu, Türkler’in ise 1000 hâne dolayında bulunduğunu belirtir. Bu rakamlar, XVI. yüzyılın sonundan itibaren nüfusun kazanmış olduğu yükselme eğilimini kaybedip tedrîcen azalmaya başladığını, çoğunluğu da müslümanların oluşturduğunu göstermektedir. Pococke’nin ifadesine göre şehirde bir başpiskopos, bir kadı ve bir voyvoda oturmaktaydı. XIX. yüzyıla girerken şehirde sadece hıristiyan nüfusta değil müslüman nüfusta da azalma oldu. 1810’da William Martin Leake, 250’si Türk 700 ailenin yaşadığını söylemektedir. Onun verdiği rakamlar oldukça düşüktür. Henry Holland, 1815’te 4000 ev ve 20.000 nüfus olduğunu söylemektedir. Bu rakamlar ise oldukça yüksektir. Edward Clarke, 1810’da buranın bir voyvoda tarafından yönetildiğine işaret etmekte, kenar mahalleleri dahil nüfusunun çok olduğunu, bunun tam bir hesabının yapılamadığını yazmaktadır. Hugh Williams, 1819’da çizdiği bir resimde Osmanlı İstefesi’nin bir panoramasını verir. XIX. yüzyılın ilk dönemlerine rastlayan bir gravür uzun bir su kemeri, iki minare, Kadmeia’nın kenar mahallelerinde bahçe duvarlarıyla çevrili üç kubbeli türbe / tekke, bir kemer ve büyükçe bir evle birlikte şehri güneydoğudan göstermektedir. Burada yer alan tekkelerden biri Evliya Çelebi tarafından zikredilen tekke olup bugün bulunduğu yer hâlâ “Tekes” adıyla anılmaktadır.
Osmanlı İstefesi Yunan isyanı sırasında oldukça sarsıldı. 1821’de Diakos kumandası altında Yunan âsileri tarafından ele geçirildi ve 1822’de geri alındı. 1829’un yazında Demetrios Ypsilantis tarafından tekrar kuşatıldı ve 1831’de yeni Yunan devletine resmen katıldı. Savaş zamanında yıkılmayan binalar 1853 ve 1893 yıllarında vuku bulan iki büyük depremde yerle bir oldu. Bu iki depremin ardından şehir satranç tahtası gibi çizilmiş bir plana göre yeniden inşa edildi. 1920’deki nüfus sayımında şehirde sadece 4085 kişinin yaşadığı tesbit edilmişti. Lozan Antlaşması’ndan sonra Anadolu’dan gelen Rum göçü sebebiyle nüfus iki katına çıktıysa da ardından oldukça yavaş bir artış göstererek günümüzde 20.000’e ulaştı; böylece XVI. yüzyılda Osmanlı dönemindeki nüfusu ancak yakalayabildi. Bugün Osmanlı dönemine ait sadece birkaç kitâbe ve mezar taşı Arkeoloji Müzesi’nde muhafaza edilmektedir. Şehir günümüzde çevresinde yetiştirilen buğday, şarap, zeytinyağı, tütün ve pamuk gibi ürünlerin pazarlandığı bir ticaret merkezidir. Burada ayrıca ipek üretilir. Tekstil, kimya ve porselen sanayii bulunur. Eski Yunan trajedilerinin en ünlülerinin sahnelendiği bir yer olarak turistik önem taşır. Yunanistan önemli bir deprem kuşağı üzerinde yer aldığından şehir 7 Eylül 1990’daki depremden de etkilenmiştir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
BA, MAD , nr. 66.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 23. cildinde, 312-314 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.