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İSTİNBAT Skip to content Naslardan hüküm çıkarma anlamında fıkıh usulü terimi.
Sözlükte “araştırmak, peşine düşmek, sonuca varmak” gibi mânalara gelen istinbât fıkıh usulü terimi olarak “ictihad ve kavrayış yoluyla naslardan hüküm çıkarmak” demektir. Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de bir defa geçen kelime (en-Nisâ 4/83) burada “bir işin iç yüzünü, gerçeğini anlamak, düşünmeyi gerektiren kapalı bir haberden kastedilen mânaya ulaşmak” anlamındadır. Hadis mecmualarında istinbatın kullanılışına Müslim’in rivayet ettiği uzun bir hadiste rastlanır. Hz. Peygamber’in hanımlarını boşadığına dair bir dedikodunun yayılması üzerine Hz. Ömer konu hakkında Resûl-i Ekrem’le konuşmuş ve bu konuşmadan böyle bir olayın doğru olmadığı sonucuna vararak (istinbat) durumu halka ilân etmiş, bunun üzerine yukarıda işaret edilen âyet nâzil olmuştur (Müslim, “Ṭalâḳ”, 30).
Bu âyetin nüzûl sebebiyle ilgili çeşitli rivayetleri nakleden Taberî, istinbatın fıkıh ve usuldeki mânasından ziyade sözlük anlamı üzerinde durmuş ve gözün göremeyeceği veya ilk bakışta anlaşılamayacak bir şeyi ortaya çıkaran yahut açıklayanın istinbatta bulunmuş olacağını kaydetmiştir. Cessâs âyetin tefsiri sırasında, dinde istinbatın istidlâl ve isti‘lâmın benzeri bir mâna taşıdığını ve bu âyetin, çeşitli hükümlerin çıkarılabilmesi için kıyas ve re’y ictihadına başvurmanın gerekliliğine işaret ettiğini, ancak söz konusu faaliyetin nas bulunmayan konularda olabileceğini, zira hakkında nas bulunan hususlarda istinbata ihtiyaç görülmediğini ve şâriin belirttiği naslarla hükmün sabit olacağını söyler. Ayrıca Cessâs, bu âyetten hareketle bazı olayların hükümleri konusunda nas bulunmadığı, onlar hakkında çeşitli medlûllerin olabileceği ve ulemânın bu gibi durumlarda söz konusu hadiselerin hükmünü hakkında nas bulunan benzeri konulara götürerek ve istinbat ederek çıkaracakları, avamın bu gibi konularda ulemâya uyması gerektiği, Hz. Peygamber’in de ahkâm istinbatı ve çeşitli delillerle istidlâlde bulunmakla mükellef olduğu gibi birtakım sonuçlara varmıştır (Aḥkâmü’l-Ḳurʾân , II, 215). Müfessirliği yanında aynı zamanda önemli bir usul âlimi olan Cessâs’ın bu değerlendirmeleri kendisinden sonraki çeşitli müfessirlere tesir etmiştir. Meselâ Fahreddin er-Râzî, söz konusu âyetin tefsiri sırasında istinbatı “fakihin ictihad ve anlayışı ile kapalı hükmü ortaya çıkarması” şeklinde tarif ederek Cessâs’ın değerlendirmelerine isim vermeden aynen katılmış (Mefâtîḥu’l-ġayb , X, 200; ayrıca bk. Elmalılı, II, 1403-1404), Kurtubî de âyetin, hakkında nas ve icmâ bulunmayan bir konuda ictihad yapmanın gerekliliğine delâlet ettiğini söylemiştir (el-Câmiʿ , V, 292). Süyûtî’nin Kur’an naslarının tefsiri ve anlaşılmasıyla ilgili İslâmî ilimleri kısaca tanıtarak Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’deki hukuka dair âyetlerin hükümlerini ele aldığı eserine el-İklîl fi’stinbâṭi’t-tenzîl adını vermesi de benzeri bir anlayıştan kaynaklanır.
Fıkıh usulü kitaplarında istinbat kavramı ayrıntılı biçimde tarif edilmekten ziyade ictihad faaliyetinin bir nevi olarak görülmüştür. Hatta naslardan hüküm çıkarmak için yapılan aklî bir faaliyet olmasından hareketle istinbatı “bizzat fıkhın kendisi” olarak tanımlayanlar da olmuştur. Şâfiî fakihlerinden Ebü’l-Hasan İbn Sürâka fıkhın hakikatinin istinbat olduğunu söylemiştir (Zerkeşî, I, 22). İbnü’s-Sem‘ânî ise fıkhın “müşkilin hükmünün vâzıh olandan istinbat edilmesi” anlamına geldiğini belirterek Hz. Peygamber’in, “Nice dinî bilgileri (fıkhı) nakleden kimseler vardır ki fakih değildir” (İbn Mâce, “Muḳaddime”, 18, “Menâsik”, 76; Ebû Dâvûd, “ʿİlim”, 10; Tirmizî, “ʿİlim”, 7) hadisindeki fakih olmayan kişilerin istinbat yapamayanlar olduğunu, onların istidlâl ve istinbatta bulunmaksızın sadece rivayetle yetindiklerini ifade etmiştir (a.g.e. , I, 22).
Metodolojilerinin en önemli unsurlarını kıyas, istihsan ve istinbatı reddin oluşturduğu Zâhirîler fıkıh-istinbat ilişkisinin tam karşısında yer almışlardır. İbn Hazm istihsan, istinbat ve re’yi bir arada zikrederek bunların lafızları farklı da olsa kendileriyle kastedilen mânanın aynı olduğunu söylemiştir (el-İḥkâm , II, 757). Kıyas ehlinin bazan kendi kıyaslarına “istinbat” adını verdiklerini belirten İbn Hazm, istinbatın “bir lafızdan kastedilenin aksine bir hüküm çıkarmak” anlamına geldiğini ileri sürerek Nisâ sûresinin 83. âyetinin istinbatın cevazı için delil getirilmesinin yanlışlığına işaret eder ve bu âyetin kesinlikle istinbatın aleyhinde bir delil olduğunu ispata çalışır (a.g.e. , II, 762-763).
Bu tartışmalardan hareketle istinbatın genel olarak, “hakkında nas bulunmayan bir konuda herhangi bir ictihad nevi ile hüküm çıkarmak veya illeti tesbit etmek” anlamına geldiği söylenebilir (Mv.F , IV, 111). Bu durumda hüküm çıkarma kıyas, istihsan, istishâb gibi herhangi bir delil veya metotla olabildiği gibi illet de “mesâlikü’l-ille” adı verilen sebr ve taksim, münasebet gibi bir yol veya metotla tesbit edilebilir. Bu arada bazı müellifler, “istinbat” adı altında sadece illeti tanıma yollarından sebr ve taksim metodunu işlemişlerse de (Nizâmeddin Abdülhamîd, s. 182-183) umumiyetle “hüküm çıkarma” mânasında olan istinbatın hem sebr ve taksim hem de bütün olarak kıyastan daha geniş bir anlam taşıdığı söylenebilir. İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye’nin istinbatı, “birtakım mâna ve illetlerin ve bunların birbirine olan nisbetlerinin ortaya çıkarılması, benzer veya denginin sahih olmasıyla kendisinin de sahih olacağına hükmedilmesi” şeklinde tanımlaması da bu genişliğe işaret etmektedir. Erken dönem İslâm âlimlerinden Hâris el-Muhâsibî’nin (ö. 243/857) şer‘î delilleri sayarken kitap, sünnet ve icmâ yanında nas bulunmadığı zaman açık istinbat ve kıyasla hüküm verileceğinden bahsetmesinden onun açık istinbatla kıyas arasında bir fark gözettiği anlaşılmaktadır.
İstinbat kavramıyla ilgili bu terminolojik tartışmalar sırasında sıkça geçen ictihad ve tahrîc (istihrâc) terimlerinin de bazan benzer anlamda kullanıldığı ve bu benzerliğin istinbatın tanımını güçleştirdiği söylenebilir. Ancak “fakihin şer‘î bir hükmün elde edilmesi için bütün gücünü harcaması” mânasına gelen ictihad istinbattan daha kapsamlı bir kavramdır. Çünkü ictihad, istinbat gibi sadece hüküm veya illetin elde edilmesiyle sınırlı olmayıp nasların diğer türdeki delâletleri ve çatışmaları halinde de yapılan bir çalışmadır. Bu sebeple gerek alanları gerekse kullandıkları metot bakımından ictihad istinbattan daha geniştir. Tahrîc ise daha ziyade herhangi bir mezhep imamının veya müctehidin bir konudaki görüş ya da ictihad metodolojisinden hareketle bazı fürû konularında hüküm çıkarmak demektir. Meselâ bir imamın kabul ettiği “güç yetirilemeyen şeyle teklif olunamayacağı” kuralından hareketle çeşitli meselelerin hükümlerini tesbit (tahrîc) işleminde sadece o imamın bir konudaki hükmünü benzer bir konuya taşıma söz konusudur. Hatta bu esnada imamın bir konu hakkında bizzat belirttiği görüşü ile o görüşün nakledildiği ikinci konudaki hükmü birbirine aykırı olabilir. Bu durumda birinci görüşe “açıkça ifade edilmiş” (mansûs), ikincisine “tahriç edilmiş” adı verilir ve bu tür hüküm tahrîcleri kapsam bakımından istinbattan daha dardır. Öte yandan hükmün kendi üzerine bağlanmış olduğu illetin ortaya çıkarılması işlemine “tahrîcü’l-menât” denir ve bu anlamı itibariyle istinbatın bir cüzü niteliğindedir.
İstinbatın tanımıyla ilgili tartışmalar yanında fakih ve usulcüler, İslâm hukukunun aslî kaynakları olan Kitap ve Sünnet metinlerini anlayabilmek ve onlardan hüküm çıkarabilmek (istinbat) amacıyla birtakım kurallar ve metotlar tesbit etmeye çalışmışlar ve bunlara “menâhicü’l-istinbât” adını vermişlerdir. Bu arada her biri kati ve sarih hukukî hükümler içermeyen bazı âyet ve hadislerden hüküm çıkarabilmek için çeşitli tefsir nazariyeleri geliştirmişler, Kur’an ve Sünnet metinlerini, mutlak sarâhatte ve tam bağlayıcı özelliğe sahip olan en yüksek derecedeki beyanlarla (muhkem) bağlayıcılık vasfı taşımayan tam kapalı ifadelere (müteşâbih) kadar inen bir “beyanlar merdiveni” kurarak anlamaya çalışmışlardır (bk. BEYÂN ). Bu konular, şer‘î hükümlerle bu hükümlerin kaynakları olan şer‘î delillerden sonra fıkıh usulünün en geniş bölümünü oluşturur. Zira şer‘î delillerin lafızlarını ve bu lafızların mâna ile ilişkilerini bilmeden onları şâriin maksatlarına uygun biçimde anlamak ve onlardan hakkında nas bulunmayan diğer hadisler konusunda isabetli hükümler çıkarmak mümkün olmaz. Lafızların çeşitleri ve anlamla ilişkilerini tesbit amacıyla konulmuş olan bu metotlar mezheplere göre farklılık arzeder. Meselâ fıkıh usulü tarihinde kelâmcıların metodunu benimseyen ve usulcülerin çoğunluğunu teşkil eden âlimler, lafızları ve mâna ile ilişkilerini mantûk ve mefhum ayırımı üzerine kurarken fukaha metodunu kabul eden Hanefîler lafızları vazolunduğu mâna, kullanıldığı mâna, mânaya delâletinin açıklığı ve kapalılığı ile mânaya delâletinin şekli bakımından dörtlü bir ayırıma tâbi tutmuşlardır. Bu ayırımlar, yalnızca Kur’an ve Sünnet metinlerini anlama ve onlardan hüküm istinbatı için değil, her biri bir cümle kalıbına dökülmüş olan ve hemen her dilde bulunan hukukî metinlerin veya kanun koyucuların maksatlarının anlaşılması için de yararlı hukukî düşünce ürünleridir. Çünkü somut bir olgu ve insanî bir yetenek olan dil, bir iletişim aracı olarak aynı zamanda hukuk normlarını da taşımaktadır. Bu durumda hukuk normlarının nasıl yorumlanıp uygulanacağı ve hukuk dili karşısında onun muhatabı olan insanların durumunun ne olacağı şeklindeki problemler, sadece İslâm hukukunun değil bütün hukuk ekollerinin ve genel hukuk metodolojisi ve felsefesinin konularını teşkil eder.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Râgıb el-İsfahânî, el-Müfredât , “nbṭ” md.
Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “nbṭ” md.
Müslim, “Ṭalâḳ”, 30.
İbn Mâce, “Muḳaddime”, 18, “Menâsik”, 76.
Ebû Dâvûd, “ʿİlim”, 10.
Tirmizî, “ʿİlim”, 7.
Hâris el-Muhâsibî, Şerefü’l-ʿaḳl ve mâhiyyetüh (nşr. Mustafa Abdülkādir Atâ), Beyrut 1406/1986, s. 44.
Taberî, Câmiʿu’l-beyân (Şâkir) , VIII, 570-573.
Cessâs, Aḥkâmü’l-Ḳurʾân , II, 215-216.
İbn Hazm, el-İḥkâm (nşr. Ahmed M. Şâkir), Kahire, ts. (Matbaatü’l-âsıme), II, 757, 762-763.
Fahreddin er-Râzî, Mefâtîḥu’l-ġayb , X, 200-201.
Kurtubî, el-Câmiʿ , V, 291-292.
İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, İʿlâmü’l-muvaḳḳıʿîn , I, 225.
Zerkeşî, el-Baḥrü’l-muḥîṭ (nşr. Abdülkādir Abdullah Halef el-Ânî), Küveyt 1413/1992, I, 22.
Elmalılı, Hak Dini , II, 1403-1404.
M. Edîb Sâlih, Tefsîrü’n-nuṣûṣ fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî , Beyrut 1404/1984, I, 23-49, 87-183.
Nizâmeddin Abdülhamîd, Mefhûmü’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî , Beyrut 1404/1984, s. 182-183.
Hayreddin Karaman, İslâm Hukukunda İctihad , Ankara 1985, s. 18-19.
Mahmûd Tevfîk M. Sa‘d, Sübülü’l-istinbâṭ mine’l-Kitâb ve’s-Sünne , Kahire 1413/1992, s. 12-25.
Ferhat Koca, İslâm Hukuk Metodolojisinde Tahsis , İstanbul 1996, s. 349-353.
al-Muhaqqiq al-Karakī, “Tarīq Istinbāṭ al-Aḥkām”, al-Tawhid , II/3, Tahran 1405/1985, s. 42-55.
İbrahim Kâfi Dönmez, “İslâm Hukukunda Müctehidin Nasslar Karşısındaki Durumu ile Modern Hukuklarda Hâkimin Kanun Karşısındaki Durumu Arasında Bir Mukayese”, MÜİFD , sy. 4 (1986), s. 23-51.
“İstinbâṭ”, Mv.F , IV, 111-112.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 23. cildinde, 368-369 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.