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KĀNÛN-ı ESÂSÎ Skip to content 1876 yılında kabul edilen Osmanlı Devleti anayasası.
Kānûn-ı Esâsî’nin kabulüne ve I. Meşrutiyet döneminin başlamasına yol açan gelişmeleri 10 Mayıs 1876’da ortaya çıkan öğrenci (talebe-i ulûm) hareketiyle başlatmak mümkündür. Medrese öğrencilerinin bu hareketi halktan da destek görünce Sultan Abdülaziz, Sadrazam Mahmud Nedim Paşa ve Şeyhülislâm Hasan Fehmi Efendi’yi azletmek zorunda kalmış, yerlerine Mütercim Rüşdü Paşa’yı sadrazam, İmâm-ı Sultânî Hayrullah Efendi’yi de şeyhülislâm olarak tayin etmiştir. Bu arada seraskerliğe de Hüseyin Avni Paşa getirilmiş, Midhat Paşa, Şûrâ-yı Devlet başkanı olarak Hey’et-i Vükelâ’da yer almıştır. Talebe-i ulûm hareketinin arkasında iktidarı ele geçiren Meşrutiyet yanlısı bu ekibin bulunduğunu gösteren bir hayli kanıt vardır. Daha sonra yine bu ekip tarafından Sultan Abdülaziz tahttan indirilerek yerine Şehzade Murad geçirildi, üç ay sonra da V. Murad’ın yerine II. Abdülhamid tahta çıkarıldı. II. Abdülhamid’in Kānûn-ı Esâsî’ye ve Meşrutiyet’e taraftar oluşunun veya böyle bir görüntü vermesinin bu seçimde etkisi vardır. Bu esnada Midhat Paşa da bir kānûn-ı esâsî hazırlığına başlamıştı.
Esas itibariyle hâricî sebeplerin Kānûn-ı Esâsî’nin hazırlanmasında rol oynadığı söylenebilir. Sultan Abdülaziz’in hal‘edilmesi, yerine önce V. Murad’ın ve ardından II. Abdülhamid’in geçmesi, hıristiyan tebaanın yoğun olarak yaşadığı Bosna-Hersek’te isyanın çıktığı, Bulgaristan’da karışıklıkların arttığı ve bu olayları kendi hâkimiyet alanlarını genişletmek için bahane olarak kullanmak isteyen Sırbistan ve Karadağ’ın Osmanlı Devleti’ne savaş ilân ettiği bir döneme rastlar. Sırbistan ve Karadağ’la yapılan savaşın beklenenin aksine Osmanlı Devleti lehine bir seyir takip etmesi Rusya’nın diplomatik müdahalesiyle iki aylık bir ateşkes antlaşması yapılmasına ve bölgede Rusya’nın güç kazanma ihtimali üzerine bunu kendi politikası bakımından tehlikeli gören İngiltere’nin Balkanlar’daki ihtilâfları görüşmek üzere devletler arası bir konferansın toplanmasını istemesine yol açtı. Neticede Osmanlı Devleti İstanbul’da bir konferans toplanmasına razı oldu. Konferansa Paris Antlaşması’nı imzalamış olan devletler, Osmanlı Devleti, Rusya, İngiltere, Fransa, Avusturya, Almanya ve İtalya katıldı. Konferansta Batılı devletleri etkilemek ve Balkanlar’da yabancı müdahalesiyle reform yapmaya gerek olmadığını, Osmanlı Devleti’nin genel bir reform yapmaya esasen istekli ve kararlı olduğunu göstermek için Osmanlı tarihinde ilk defa olarak Kānûn-ı Esâsî ilân edildi (23 Aralık 1876). Konferans çalışmalarına başlarken durum top atışlarıyla delegelere ve İstanbul halkına duyuruldu. Aynı gün Bâbıâli’deki törende padişahın 1876 anayasasının ilânıyla ilgili iradesi okundu. Ancak bu ilânın yabancı delegeler üzerinde beklenen etkisi görülmedi, aksine bu sürpriz gösteri yersiz bulundu.
Kānûn-ı Esâsî’nin ilânı aslında Gülhane Hatt-ı Hümâyunu ve Islahat Fermanı ile belli ölçüde benzerlik gösterir. Gülhane’de okunan hatt-ı hümâyun büyük ölçüde Mısır meselesinde, Islahat Fermanı ise Kırım savaşından sonra toplanan Paris Konferansı’nda Batılı devletlerin desteğini sağlama amacına yönelikti. Ancak Kānûn-ı Esâsî’nin ilânını bütünüyle dış sebeplere bağlamak mümkün değildir; bunda iç sebeplerin de rolü vardır. Bir anlamda Kānûn-ı Esâsî Tanzimat’la başlayan modernleşme sürecinin tabii bir devamıdır. Esasen bu dönemin önemli bir muhalefet hareketi olan Genç Osmanlılar’da halkın yönetimde söz sahibi olması düşüncesi belli bir ağırlık kazanmıştı. Genç Osmanlılar’ın Midhat Paşa ile paralellikleri de daha çok bu noktada ortaya çıkmıştır. Ancak anayasanın ilânında dış dinamiklerin rolünün iç dinamiklerin rolünden fazla olması bu hareketin sonraki dönemlerde sürekli bir yükselme seyri takip etmesini engellemiştir.
Midhat Paşa, V. Murad’ın padişahlığı döneminde elli yedi maddelik bir anayasa taslağı hazırlatmıştı. II. Abdülhamid, Said Paşa’ya o güne kadar kabul edilmiş Fransız anayasalarını da Türkçe’ye çevirme görevini verdi. Bu çeviri ışığında ikinci bir taslak ortaya çıktı. Sonunda nihaî metni hazırlamak üzere Meclis-i Mahsûs adı altında Midhat Paşa’nın başkanlığında ulemâ, asker ve bürokratlardan oluşan bir komisyon kuruldu. Üye sayısı yirmi dörtle otuz yedi arasında değişen bu komisyon alt komisyonlar halinde çalışarak bir tasarı hazırladı. Bunu yaparken Batı anayasalarından da faydalanıldı. Öte yandan hazırlıklar sürerken kamuoyunda anayasa aleyhtarı bir hava oluşmaya başlamış, yeni bir talebe-i ulûm hareketi hazırlıklarına girişilmişti. Midhat Paşa ve onu destekleyenler, böyle bir çaba içinde bulunanların yargılanmadan sürgüne gönderilmesini istemişler, padişahın yargılama yapılması isteğine rağmen bunu sağlamışlardı. Sonuçta hazırlanan tasarı Hey’et-i Vükelâ’da görüşülerek kabul edildi ve padişahın onayına sunuldu. Burada Cevdet Paşa ilginç bir ayrıntı vermekte ve hazırlanan tasarının ilgili komisyonda ve Meclis-i Vükelâ’da tartışıldığını, kendisinin bazı noktalarda Midhat Paşa’ya karşı çıktığını, ancak paşanın padişahın onayına Meclis-i Vükelâ’da son şekli verilen metni değil komisyonda benimsenen metni sunarak istediği metnin kanunlaştırılmasını sağladığını söylemektedir.
Kanunun hazırlanmasında bir kurucu meclis veya halk temsilcilerinden oluşan bir yasama meclisi rol almış değildir. Bu bakımdan Kānûn-ı Esâsî’nin şeklî açıdan anayasa sayılmayacağını söyleyen hukukçular varsa da maddî hukuk açısından anayasa kabul edilmemesi için bir sebep yoktur. Anayasanın hazırlanmasında padişahın haklarını korumaya özen gösteren Cevdet Paşa, Mütercim Rüşdü Paşa gibi muhafazakârlarla Midhat Paşa, Süleyman Paşa, Ziyâ Paşa ve Nâmık Kemal’in başını çektiği liberal-reformist grup mücadele etmiştir. Kānûn-ı Esâsî’nin en çok tartışılan maddesinin padişaha yurt dışına sürgün etme yetkisi veren 113. maddesi olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Genç Osmanlılar’ın ileri gelenlerinden Nâmık Kemal ve Ziyâ Paşa’nın bu maddeye esastan karşı çıktıkları ve arzu edilen reformları yapmada gerekli kararlılığı göstermediği için Midhat Paşa’ya sitem ettikleri bilinmektedir.
Kānûn-ı Esâsî on iki başlık altında toplanmış 119 maddeden teşekkül etmektedir. Bu maddelerle oluşturulan anayasal düzen şu şekilde özetlenebilir: Devlet bir bütündür (md. 1); saltanat ve hilâfet Osmanoğulları’nın en büyük erkek evlâdına aittir (md. 3); vekillerin tayin ve azli, yabancı devletlerle sözleşme yapılması, savaş ve barış ilânı, hutbelerde isminin okunması, kara ve deniz kuvvetlerinin kumandası, Meclis-i Umûmî’nin toplanması ve tatili, Hey’et-i Meb‘ûsan’ın feshi padişahın dokunulmaz haklarındandır (md. 7); devletin resmî dini İslâm’dır (md. 11); basın kanun dairesinde hürdür (md. 12); genel âdâbı ve asayişi ihlâl etmemek şartıyla diğer din mensuplarının din ve vicdan hürriyetiyle mezhep imtiyazları tanınmıştır (md. 13); herkesin eğitim ve öğretim hakkı vardır (md. 15); Osmanlı toplumunun bir parçasını oluşturan gayri müslimler kendi inançları doğrultusunda eğitim yapabilirler (md. 16); Osmanlı tebaasının dilekçe, mülkiyet, konut dokunulmazlığı hakları vardır (md. 14, 21, 22); hiç kimse kanunda öngörülenden başka bir mahkemede yargılanamaz (md. 23), müsâdere ve angarya (md. 24), işkence yasaktır (md. 26); sadrazam ve şeyhülislâm bizzat padişah tarafından belirlenerek tayin edilir, diğer vekiller sadrazam tarafından belirlenip padişah tarafından tayin edilir (md. 27); vekiller görevleriyle ilgili faaliyetlerinden sorumludur, görevleriyle ilgili olarak yüce divana gitmelerine Hey’et-i Meb‘ûsan karar verir, şahıslarıyla ilgili konularda ise ait oldukları mahkemede yargılanırlar (md. 30, 31, 33); vekillerle Hey’et-i Meb‘ûsan arasında bir anlaşmazlık çıktığında vekilin değiştirilmesi veya Hey’et-i Meb‘ûsan’ın feshi padişahın yetkisindedir (md. 35); gecikmesinde sakınca bulunan hallerde muvakkat kanun çıkarılabilir (md. 36); Meclis-i Umûmî, Hey’et-i Meb‘ûsan ve Hey’et-i A‘yân olmak üzere iki meclisten oluşur (md. 42); meclis her yıl ekim başında toplanır ve mart başında faaliyetlerine son verir, padişah gerek görürse meclisi vaktinden önce toplantıya çağırır (md. 43, 44); Meclis-i Umûmî üyeleri düşünce ve beyanlarında hürdürler, gerek meclisteki konuşmaları gerekse genel olarak açıkladığı görüşleri için haklarında soruşturma açılamaz (md. 47); üyelerin vatana ihanet, Kānûn-ı Esâsî’yi değiştirme ve irtikâpla suçlanmaları durumunda üyeliklerinin düşmesine üçte iki çoğunlukla karar verilir, haklarında kesinleşmiş mahkûmiyet kararı olanların üyeliği düşer (md. 48); kanun teklifi Hey’et-i Vükelâ’ya aittir; Hey’et-i A‘yân ve Hey’et-i Meb‘ûsan padişahtan izin alarak kendi görevleri dahilindeki kanun tekliflerini Şûrâ-yı Devlet’e iletirler, burada hazırlanan kanun tasarıları her iki mecliste kabul edilir ve padişah tarafından onaylanırsa kanunlaşır (md. 53, 54); Meclis-i A‘yân’ın üyeleri Meclis-i Meb‘ûsan üyelerinin üçte birini geçmemek üzere padişahça belirlenir (md. 60); Hey’et-i A‘yân, Meclis-i Meb‘ûsan’dan geçen kanun tasarılarını kabul veya reddeder yahut değişiklik yapılması için geri gönderir (md. 64); her elli bin erkek nüfus için bir milletvekili seçilir (md. 65); Hey’et-i Meb‘ûsan padişahın iradesiyle feshedildiği takdirde altı ay içinde yeni bir seçim yapılır (md. 73); meclis başkanını, ikinci ve üçüncü başkanları üç misli aday arasından padişah seçer (md. 77); hâkimler azledilmezler (md. 81); yargılama alenîdir ve mahkemeler yetki ve sorumluluk alanına giren davaları kabulden kaçınamazlar (md. 82, 84); kişilerle hükümet arasındaki davalar da genel mahkemelerde görülür (md. 85); her ne ad altında olursa olsun olağan üstü yetkili mahkemeler kurulamaz (md. 89); vekillerin, Mahkeme-i Temyîz başkan ve üyelerinin, padişahın hakları aleyhinde harekete geçenlerle devleti tehlikeye düşürenlerin yargılanmaları otuz üyeden oluşan yüce divanda yapılır (md. 92); malî yükümlülükler ancak kanunla konur (md. 96); özel bir kanunla izin verilmedikçe bütçe dışında harcama yapılamaz (md. 100); fevkalâde durumlarda bütçe kanununun yürürlük süresi en fazla bir yıl daha uzatılabilir (md. 101); ülkenin herhangi bir yerinde ihtilâl çıkacağını gösteren emârelerin ortaya çıkması durumunda hükümetin o bölgeye has olmak üzere sıkıyönetim ilânına hakkı vardır, hükümetin emniyetini ihlâl ettikleri kolluk kuvvetlerinin araştırmalarıyla sabit olanlar padişah tarafından ülkeden uzaklaştırılabilir (md. 113); Kānûn-ı Esâsî’nin hiçbir maddesi hiçbir bahane ile askıya alınamaz (md. 115); Kânûn-ı Esâsî hükümleri, her iki meclisin ayrı ayrı vereceği üçte iki çoğunluk ve padişahın onayıyla değiştirilebilir (md. 116). Bu son madde 1876 anayasasını katı anayasalar arasına sokmaktadır.
1876 anayasasının yürürlüğe girmesinden kısa bir süre sonra Midhat Paşa istifaya zorlanmış, ardından 113. maddeye dayanılarak sürgüne gönderilmiştir. Meclis-i Umûmî iki dönem (19 Mart 1877-28 Haziran 1877 ve 13 Aralık 1877-14 Şubat 1878) çalışmış, daha sonra II. Meşrutiyet’e kadar tatil edilmiştir. Bu tatilde meclisin kozmopolit yapısının etkisi vardır. 65. maddede her elli bin erkek için bir mebus seçileceği beyan edilmişse de fiiliyatta bu gerçekleşmemiştir; meclisin ilk dönemi için yahudilerden her 18.750 erkeğe bir milletvekilliği düşerken hıristiyanlardan her 107.550, müslümanlardan her 133.367 erkeğe bir milletvekilliği düşmüştür. Farklılık bölgeler arasında da görülmüştür. Avrupa bölgesinde yaşayanlar için her 88.882 erkeğe bir milletvekilliği düşerken Asya bölgesinde yaşayanlardan her 162.148 erkeğe bir milletvekilliği düşmüştür (Shaw, II, 181-182). Kānûn-ı Esâsî meclislerin tatil edilmesiyle bir anlamda askıya alınmış olduğu halde Osmanlı salnâmelerinin başında tam metin olarak yayımlanmaya devam etmiştir.
Meclis-i Meb‘ûsan’ın tatilinden sonra bir anlamda yürürlüğü durdurulan Kānûn-ı Esâsî II. Meşrutiyet’in ilânı üzerine tekrar yürürlüğe girmiştir. İlânı takip eden yıllarda Kānûn-ı Esâsî yedi defa değişikliğe uğramıştır. Bunların içinde en köklü olanı 21 Ağustos 1909’da yapılanıdır. Bu değişiklikte yirmi bir madde tâdil edilmiş, bir madde tamamıyla kaldırılmış ve üç madde ilâve edilmiştir. Getirilen en önemli yenilikler padişahın Meclis-i Umûmî’de anayasaya bağlılık yemini etmesi, hükümetin bundan böyle Meclis-i Meb‘ûsan karşısında sorumlu olması ve güven oyu alma mecburiyetinde bulunması, Hey’et-i Meb‘ûsan’ın birinci ve ikinci başkanlarını doğrudan kendisinin seçmesi, padişahın sahip olduğu hakları ancak Meclis-i Vükelâ aracılığıyla kullanabilme mecburiyetinin getirilmesi olarak sayılabilir. Ayrıca antlaşma yapma konusunda yasama organının yetkilerinin arttırılması, her iki meclisin padişah tarafından toplantıya davet edilmeden kendiliğinden toplanması, yasa önerilerinin doğrudan vekiller tarafından da yapılması, Şûrâ-yı Devlet’in yasama erkinden çıkarılması, padişahın yasaları mutlak veto yetkisinin sınırlandırılması ve meclisin kendisine iade edilen kanunun üçte iki çoğunlukla geri göndermesi durumunda onaylama zorunda olması bu değişiklikle kabul edilmiştir. Yeni düzenleme ile birlikte 1876 metninde padişaha tanınan yetkilerin bir kısmı kaldırılmış, böylece Osmanlı Devleti’ne daha meşrutiyetçi bir yapı kazandırılmış ve esas itibariyle parlamenter hükümet modeli benimsenmiştir. Öte yandan 1876 anayasasının en çok tartışılan padişaha sürgün yetkisi veren 113. maddesi de yürürlükten kaldırılmıştır. Bu köklü değişikliği ikinci derecede önemli olan 1914, 1915, 1916 (üç defa) ve 1918 değişiklikleri izlemiştir. 1876 yılında kabul edilen Kānûn-ı Esâsî Osmanlı Devleti’nin sonuna kadar yürürlükte kalmıştır. Hatta Tarık Zafer Tunaya’ya göre 1924 Teşkîlât-ı Esâsiyye Kanunu’nun 104. maddesi dikkate alındığında bu yürürlük 1924’e kadar sürmüştür. Bu durumda söz konusu anayasa kırk sekiz yıl yürürlükte kalmış olmaktadır (TCTA , I, 39).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Düstur , Birinci tertip, İstanbul 1296, IV, 2-20.
Cevdet, Tezâkir , IV, 167-168.
Mithat Cemal Kuntay, Namık Kemal, Devrinin Olayları ve İnsanları Arasında , İstanbul 1956, II, 55-137.
St. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey , Cambridge 1976, II, 181-182.
Recai Galip Okandan, Âmme Hukukumuzun Anahatları , İstanbul 1977, s. 116-460.
Enver Ziya Karal, Osmanlı Tarihi , Ankara 1983, VIII, 1-26.
Lewis, Modern Türkiye’nin Doğuşu , s. 158-172, 204-207.
Bülent Tanör, Osmanlı-Türk Anayasal Gelişmeleri , İstanbul 1996, s. 92-170.
Bekir Sıtkı Baykal, “Birinci Meşrutiyete Dair Belgeler”, TTK Belleten , XXIV/96 (1960), s. 601-636.
Selda Kaya Kılıç, “1876 Anayasası’nın Bilinmeyen İki Tasarısı”, AÜ Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi: OTAM , sy. 4, Ankara 1993, s. 557-633.
Tarık Zafer Tunaya, “1876 Kanun-i Esasisi ve Türkiye’de Anayasa Geleneği”, TCTA , I, 27-39.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 24. cildinde, 328-330 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.