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HAL‘ Skip to content Devlet başkanını görevden alma anlamında İslâm hukuku terimi.
Sözlükte “soymak, çekip almak, çıkarmak, çözmek, tecrit etmek” anlamlarına gelen hal‘ , hukukta “iş başındaki devlet başkanını görevden uzaklaştırmak, ona yapılan biatı bozmak” mânasında kullanılır. Halifenin görevden alınması literatürde genelde hal‘ kelimesiyle, diğer devlet memurlarının görevden alınması ise azil kelimesiyle ifade edilmiştir. Biat işlemiyle birbirlerine karşı hak ve borçlar altına giren ve aralarında hukukî bir bağ teessüs eden kimselerin bu işlemine “akid” (bağlama), bunu sona erdiren işleme de “hal‘” (çözme) denmiştir. İş başından uzaklaştırılan halifeye halî‘ veya mahlû‘ denir. Hal‘ kökü Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de sözlük (Tâhâ 20/12), hadislerde hem sözlük hem terim anlamlarında kullanılmıştır (bk. Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “ḫlʿ” md.). Kadının kocasından belli bir bedel karşılığında boşanması nikâh bağını çözmek olduğundan buna da aynı kökten hul‘ veya muhâlea denilir.
İş başındaki devlet başkanının görevden uzaklaştırılması ve bunun sebepleri, fıkıh mezhepleri ve aynı mezhep içinde hukukçular tarafından farklı şekillerde değerlendirilmiştir. Bu değerlendirmelerde hukukçuların dinî-hukukî maslahatın ne olduğu veya neyi gerektirdiği konusunda farklı görüşlere sahip olmasının etkisi bulunduğu kadar içinde yaşadıkları dinî-siyasî şartların da etkisi vardır.
Halifenin görevden alınmasının hangi sebepten dolayı mümkün olacağı İslâm hukukçuları tarafından tartışılmıştır. İslâm ümmetiyle halife arasındaki ilişkiyi bir vekâlet ilişkisine benzeten hukukçular bakımından halifenin hal‘i herhangi bir hukukî problem doğurmamaktadır. Zira müvekkilin vekilini dilediği zaman azletme hakkı genel olarak kabul edilmektedir (Mecelle , md. 1521). Aynı şekilde vekil kabul edildiğinde halife de dilediği zaman görevinden ayrılabilmektedir (a.g.e. , md. 1522). Ebû Ya‘lâ el-Ferrâ, Seyfeddin el-Âmidî, Haccâvî gibi klasik dönem hukukçuları ile çağdaş hukukçuların önemli bir kısmı bu görüştedir. Ancak bu vekâlet ilişkisi teorisine karşı çıkan ve sınırlı sayıdaki ehlü’l-hal ve’l-akdin hangi sıfatla ümmet adına halifeyi kendilerini yönetmek üzere vekil tayin ettiğini soran hukukçular da vardır. İkinci görüşe göre halife ile ümmet arasındaki ilişki bir velâyet ilişkisidir. Ehlü’l-hal ve’l-akd denilen seçiciler, gerekli niteliklere sahip olduğunu düşündükleri halife adayına velâyet-i âmme yetki ve görevini yüklerler. Ebû Hanîfe, Evzâî ve Ahmed b. Hanbel başta olmak üzere önemli sayıda hukukçunun bu görüşte olduğu söylenebilir. Bu hukukçular, kendisinde bulunması gerekli nitelikler ve bu nitelikleri kaybetmesinin doğurduğu sonuçlar konusunda halifeyi, ehliyeti bulunmayan kimselerin hukukî temsilcisi olan veliye benzetmek suretiyle çözüm bulmaya çalışmışlardır. Meselâ fâsık olan halifenin görevden uzaklaştırılmasının gerekli olmadığını söyleyenler, bu görüşlerini velinin fâsık olmasının onun velâyetine engel görülmemesine dayandırırlar. Bu teoriye göre ümmet dilediği zaman bu yetkiyi geri alamadığı gibi veliyy-i âm olan halifenin de daha sonra bu görevden affını istemesi söz konusu değildir. Bu yorumda, Hz. Osman’ın görevden ayrılmayı dinî-hukukî sorumluluğu gerektiren bir iş sayarak reddetmesinin de etkisi vardır. Ancak bu durumda da halifenin görevi velâyet-i âmmenin sona ermesini gerektirici sebeplerin ortaya çıkması durumunda sona ermekte veya halife hal‘edilmektedir. İslâm hukukundaki hâkim anlayışın halife ile İslâm toplumu arasındaki ilişkiyi bir velâyet ilişkisi olarak görme meylinde olduğu ve bu sebeple veliyy-i âm olan halifenin ancak belirli sebeplerin varlığı durumunda görevden ayrılması veya görevinin sona ermesi görüşüne ağırlık verdiği söylenebilir.
İslâm hukukçuları, iş başındaki devlet başkanının görevden alınmasını gerektiren sebepleri genel olarak üç grup altında toplamaktadırlar: Halifenin irtidad etmesi, düşmanın veya isyancıların eline düşüp esir olması, seçilmek için gerekli olan niteliklerden birini yitirmesi. Bunların içinde en çok tartışılan ve uygulamada hiç değilse görünüşteki bir sebep olarak ön plana çıkan, halifenin bu makama geçmek için sahip olması gerekli niteliklerden birini kaybetmesi hususudur.
Halifenin dinden çıkması çok teorik görünmekle birlikte İslâm hukukçuları tarafından tereddütsüz hilâfeti sona erdiren bir sebep olarak kabul edilmiştir. Uygulamada pek karşılaşılmayan bu durumun klasik kaynaklarda devamlı olarak ele alınıp işlenmesi, halife seçilmek için müslüman olma şartının bütün fakihlerce aranmakta oluşuyla açıklanabilir. Halifenin düşmana esir olması da eğer kurtulma ümidi yoksa İslâm âlimleri tarafından hilâfeti sona erdiren bir sebep olarak görülmüştür. Halifenin kendisine isyan eden kimselerin eline düşmesi ihtimali de değerlendirilmiş ve kurtulma ümidi varsa veya kurtulma ümidi bulunmamakla birlikte isyancılar kendilerine henüz yeni halife seçmemişlerse hilâfetinin sona ermediği kabul edilmiştir. Halifenin kumandanlarından birinin idaresi ve vesâyeti altına girmesi ise hilâfeti sona erdiren bir sebep olarak görülmemiştir. İslâm âlimlerinin bu ihtimali tartışmalarının sebebi, bu görüşlerin ortaya atıldığı dönemlerde Abbâsî halifelerinin önce emîrü’l-ümerâların, ardından Büveyhîler’in ve nihayet Selçuklular’ın kontrolü altına girip istiklâllerini büyük ölçüde yitirmeleridir.
Halifenin sahip olması gerekli bulunan niteliklerden birini kaybetmesine gelince bu nitelikler iki gruba ayrılarak değerlendirilir: Kendisinde aklî veya bedenî bir ârıza meydana gelmesi, adaletten ayrılıp fâsık olması. Aklî melekelerini yitirmesi veya görme, işitme, konuşma gibi duyularından birini yahut el ve ayak gibi görevini yerine getirmesi bakımından önemli sayılan bir organını kaybetmesi durumunda devlet başkanının görevden alınması veya görevinin kendiliğinden sona ermesi gerektiği genelde kabul edilmektedir. Ancak burada hangi organın fonksiyon icra etmemesinin görevi bakımından önemli olduğu meselesi önem kazanmaktadır. Halifenin, çalışmasını engelleyecek biçimde felç geçirmesi veya aynı sonucu doğuracak şekilde diğer organlarından birini kaybetmesi de aynı kategoride değerlendirilmelidir.
Üzerinde en çok tartışılan hal‘ sebebi halifenin adaletten ayrılıp fâsık olmasıdır. Burada “adâlet” hukukun çizdiği çerçeve içinde hareket etme, hukuka uygun davranış gösterme anlamına geldiği gibi büyük günahlardan kaçınma, farz olan vazifeleri yerine getirme anlamına da gelmektedir (bk. ADÂLET ). Buna göre fâsık da büyük günah işleyen kimsedir. Neyin büyük günah kabul edileceği hususunda ise İslâm âlimleri farklı görüşlere sahiptir (bk. FÂSIK ).
İmâmiyye Şîası, devlet başkanının (imam) fâsık olması sebebiyle hal‘edilmesini kabul etmez. Çünkü bu mezhebe göre imam esasen mâsumdur, dolayısıyla fâsık olması söz konusu değildir. Ayrıca ehlü’l-hal ve’l-akdin oylarıyla seçilmeyip daha önce iş başında bulunan mâsum imam tarafından tayin edilmiştir. Bu sebeple onlar tarafından hal‘edilmesi mümkün değildir. Ancak İmâmiyye’nin bu görüşü kendi imamları için geçerlidir. Bu mezhep, diğer devlet başkanlarının hal‘edilmesini ayrı bir kategoride ele almakta ve bu konuda esas itibariyle Ehl-i sünnet’in çoğunluğu ile aynı görüşü paylaşmaktadır.
Hâricîler, Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’deki emir bi’l-ma‘rûf ve nehiy ani’l-münkere dair âyetlere (meselâ bk. Âl-i İmrân 3/104, 110), Hz. Peygamber’in kötülüğün elle, dille düzeltilmesi veya onaylanmaması (Müslim, “Îmân”, 78; Tirmizî, “Fiten”, 12), zalim sultanın yanında hakkın söylenmesiyle (Ebû Dâvûd, “Melâḥim”, 17; İbn Mâce, “Fiten”, 2) ilgili hadislerine dayanarak fâsık imamın azledilmesi gerektiğini söylerler.
Sünnî hukukçulara gelince, bu konuda Şâfiîler fâsık imamın adaletten ayrılmasıyla görevinin kendiliğinden sona ereceğini söylerken Hanefîler azledilme hakkının doğduğunu kabul ederler. Bu iki görüş arasındaki fark şuradan kaynaklanmaktadır: Şâfiîler’e göre adalet hilâfetin in‘ikad ve cevaz şartı iken Hanefîler bunu bir kemal şartı olarak görürler. Bu sebeple Hanefîler’e göre adaletten ayrılan bir kimsenin hilâfeti mekruh olmakla birlikte câizdir. Bununla birlikte fâsık halife fitne çıkma ihtimali yoksa değiştirilir. Gazzâlî, diğer bazı Şâfiî hukukçuları gibi Hanefîler’le aynı görüşte olup fitne ihtimalinin bulunmaması halinde gerekli nitelikleri kaybeden halifenin değiştirilmesini kabul eder (el-İḳtiṣâd , s. 150). Mâlikî ve Hanbelî hukukçuları ise fâsık halifenin değiştirilmesini uygun görmezler. Mürcie de fâsık halifenin azledilmemesi gerektiği görüşündedir.
Fâsık imamın değiştirilmesini kabul edenler bunun nasıl mümkün olacağını, bu maksatla silâh kullanılıp kullanılmayacağını da tartışmışlardır. İslâm âlimlerinin bu konuda üç farklı görüşe sahip oldukları söylenebilir. Bu âlimler içinde en radikal görüşe sahip olanlar Hâricîler’dir. Onlara göre fâsık halife her yolla değiştirilmelidir; bunun için gerekiyorsa silâhlı eyleme de başvurulur. Hatta Hâricîler, fâsık halifeye baş kaldırmanın vâcip oluşunu inanç sistemlerinin temel esaslarından biri saymışlardır. Büyük günahla küfür arasında bir fark görmeyen Hâricîler’e göre büyük günah işleyen kâfir olmuştur ve bu kimsenin değiştirilmesi vâciptir. Hakem olayına kadar Hz. Ali’ye bağlı kalan Hâricîler, bu olayın ardından Allah dışında hüküm vermeye yetkili hiç kimsenin bulunmadığını söyleyerek ondan ayrılmışlar, daha sonra da başta bizzat Hz. Ali olmak üzere birçok halife ile mücadele etmişlerdir. Onlara göre halifeyi azletme yetkisi onu seçme yetkisine sahip olanlarındır. Şîa’nın Zeydiyye ve İsmâiliyye kolları da fâsık halifenin hal‘edilmesi hususunda esas itibariyle Hâricîler gibi düşünmektedir.
Bu görüşün öbür ucunda Ehl-i sünnet’in çoğunluğu ile İmâmiyye Şîası yer alır. Kendilerinden olmayan halifenin hal‘edilmesi konusunda İmâmiyye Ehl-i sünnet’le aynı grup içinde değerlendirilmelidir. Bu geniş grup, devlet başkanının fâsık olması durumunda hal‘edilmesi ve bu maksatla kendisine karşı çıkılması yerine sabredilmesi görüşünü savunmaktadır. Ehl-i sünnet’i bu konuda sabırlı olmaya sevkeden tarihî sebepler vardır. Bunların başında, Hz. Osman’ın öldürülmesiyle başlayan bir dizi olay yüzünden İslâm toplumunun içine düştüğü anarşi ve fitne gelir. Bu olaylar, âlimleri hal‘ ve zalim devlet başkanına direnme konusunda daha ihtiyatlı bir yol takip etmeye mecbur bırakmıştır. İmâmiyye de Ehl-i beyt lehine yapılan her hareketin kanlı olaylara sebebiyet verdiğini ve kendi aleyhlerine sonuçlandığını görünce halifenin hal‘edilmesine ve bunun için kuvvet kullanılmasına olumsuz bakmaya başlamıştır.
Bu iki görüş arasında yer alan esas itibariyle Ebû Hanîfe ile Mu‘tezile’ye ait olan üçüncü bir görüş daha vardır. Buna göre eğer fâsık devlet başkanını değiştirme imkânı varsa silâh zoruyla da olsa değiştirilir, aksi takdirde sabretmek gerekir.
Devlet başkanının hal‘edilmesine dair görüşler genel olarak ilk dönemin dinî-siyasî tartışmalarından fazlasıyla etkilenmiştir. Öte yandan halifenin hal‘edilmesini gerektiren sebepleri tesbit ederken İslâm âlimleri, devletin âdil bir şekilde yönetimi için halifede gerekli gördükleri nitelikler üzerinde de durmuşlar, bu nitelikleri hem halife olmak için aramışlar, hem de halife olduktan sonra kaybedilmesini hal‘i gerektiren bir sebep saymışlardır. Ancak İslâm tarihi boyunca uygulama her zaman bu teorik esaslar çerçevesinde olmamış, çok defa siyasî rekabetler ve gruplar arası çekişmeler hal‘ meselesini gündeme getirmiştir. Bu durumda önce bir değişimi mümkün kılacak fiilî şartlar temin edilmiş, daha sonra bunu hukukî bir zemine oturtma çabası içine girilmiştir. Dolayısıyla İslâm tarihindeki hal‘ vak‘aları için gösterilen hukukî sebeplerin aslında gerçekten var olduğunu söylemek her zaman mümkün değildir. Birçok iktidar değişikliği de hal‘ prosedürüne dahi başvurmadan iş başındaki halifenin öldürülmesiyle gerçekleşmiştir. Abbâsîler’de Hârûnürreşîd’den sonra hilâfet makamına geçen Emîn’in, babasının kendisinden sonra veliaht tayin ettiği Me’mûn ve Mü’temen’i azledip yerine oğlu Mûsâ’yı veliaht yapması üzerine çıkan bir dizi olay sonucu öldürülmesi, Halife Mütevekkil-Alellah’ın yine veliaht değişimi yüzünden aynı âkıbete uğraması, Mühtedî-Billâh’ın Türk kumandan Mûsâ b. Boğa tarafından öldürülmesi ve iki defa hilâfet makamına geçip uzaklaştırılan Muktedir-Billâh’ın üçüncüsünde hilâfetini korumak için giriştiği bir savaşta öldürülmesi buna örnektir.
Abbâsî Devleti’nde hal‘edilen veya hal‘den önce kendiliğinden görevden çekilen halifelerin durumu da farklı değildir. Bu hususta da hukukî sebeplerden ziyade siyasî sebepler rol oynamıştır. Halife olması Abbâsî ailesi içinde itirazlarla karşılanan Müstaîn-Billâh’ın, kendisinden sonra halife olan Mu‘tez-Billâh taraftarlarının yürüttüğü mücadele sonucu hilâfetten çekilmesi, Kāhir-Billâh’ın İbn Mukle’nin tahrikleriyle galeyana gelen halkın baskısıyla hal‘edilmesi, Müttakī-Lillâh’ın Türk kumandanı Tüzün tarafından aynı âkıbete uğratılması, Müttakī’den sonra gelen Müstekfî-Billâh’ın Büveyhîler’den Muizzüddevle, onun yerine geçen Mutî‘-Lillâh’ın Emîr Sebük Tegin tarafından hal‘edilmesi buna örnek olarak gösterilebilir. Mutî‘-Lillâh felçolunca Emîr Sebük Tegin ondan hilâfetten çekilmesini ve bu görevi oğluna devretmesini istedi. Bunun üzerine halifenin, hastalığı sebebiyle görevini yapamayacağına ve hilâfetten feragat ettiğine dair bir zabıt tutuldu. Kadı Muhammed b. Sâlih’in yazdığı bu zabıtta şâhit olarak Ahmed b. Hamîd, Ömer b. Muhammed ve Talha b. Muhammed’in isimleri yer alıyordu. Mutî‘-Lillâh hal‘edildikten sonra eş-Şeyhü’l-Fâzıl diye anılırdı (İbnü’l-Cevzî, VII, 66). Tâi‘-Lillâh da aynı âkıbete uğradı, Büveyhîler’den Bahâüddevle’nin isteğiyle kendini hal‘etti ve kadılarla eşrafın da hazır bulunduğu bir merasimle hilâfeti Kādir-Billâh’a devretti (a.g.e. , VII, 156-157). Abbâsî halifeleri arasında hal‘i en dikkate değer olanlardan biri Râşid-Billâh’tır. Irak Selçuklu Sultanı Mes‘ûd b. Muhammed Tapar’a karşı çıkan Halife Râşid kadı, fukaha ve şühûddan meydana gelen bir heyet tarafından halifelik için gerekli vasıfları kaybettiği, Sultan Mes‘ud’a karşı yeminle yaptığı taahhüdü yerine getirmediği gerekçesiyle hal‘edilmiştir. Hal‘ olayları bir menşur ile bütün ülkelere ve âmillere bildirilir, hutbelerde yeni halife ve yeni veliahdın isimleri zikredilirdi.
Bu durum, Büyük Selçuklu Devleti ve özellikle Anadolu Selçukluları için de söz konusudur. Hânedan mensupları arasında sürekli taht kavgalarının görüldüğü müslüman Türk devletlerinde taht değişikliklerinde hal‘ sebeplerinin mevcudiyeti aranmadığı gibi böyle bir prosedüre çok defa gerek bile duyulmamıştır. Tuğrul Bey’den sonra Büyük Selçuklu tahtına çıkan Süleyman’ın Alparslan tarafından, Anadolu Selçuklu Sultanı I. Gıyâseddin Keyhusrev’in II. Süleyman Şah, III. Kılıcarslan’ın da I. Gıyâseddin Keyhusrev tarafından tahttan indirilmesi buna örnek teşkil eder.
Osmanlı Devleti’ndeki hal‘ vak‘alarının da günün siyasî şartlarından kaynaklandığı, hal‘edilmesi istenen padişahlar için hukukî bir sebep arandığı ve şeyhülislâm fetvalarıyla bu sebebin resmîleştirildiği görülmektedir. II. Murad’ın, oğlu Mehmed’i (Fâtih Sultan Mehmed) kendi yerine geçirip tahttan ayrılması ve daha sonra yeniden oğlunun rızâsını almaksızın tahta çıkması hadisesiyle, Yavuz Sultan Selim’in kardeşi Şehzade Ahmed’in veliaht olmasına karşı çıkması ve yeniçerilerin de desteğiyle Şehzade Ahmed’in tahta geçmesinin önlenip Selim lehine tahttan feragat etmesi tamamen siyasî sebeplerden kaynaklanmıştır. II. Osman, İbrâhim, III. Ahmed, III. Selim, Abdülaziz ve II. Abdülhamid’in hal‘edilmeleri veya hal‘ vâkıası karşısında tahttan feragat etmeye mecbur kalmaları, devlet başkanının fâsık olması veya sahip olduğu niteliklerden birini kaybetmesi sebebiyle değil bazan vezirlerin, bazan ulemânın yeniçerilerle birlikte rol aldıkları siyasî komplolar sonucunda meydana gelmiştir. Ancak bu vak‘aların çoğunda şeklen klasik literatürde yer alan hukukî prosedüre uyulmuş ve hal‘ sebeplerinden birinin gerçekleştiği ileri sürülüp hal‘ine fetva alınmıştır. Meselâ Sultan Abdülaziz’in hal‘ fetvasında, “Emîrü’l-mü’minîn olan Zeyd muhtellü’ş-şuûr ve umûr-ı siyâsiyyeden bîbehre olup emvâl-i mîriyyeyi mülk ü milletin tâkat ve tahammül edemeyeceği mertebe masârif-i nefsâniyyesine sarf ve umûr-ı dîniyye ve dünyeviyyeyi ihlâl ü teşvîş ve mülk ü milleti tahrip edip bekāsı mülk ü millet hakkında muzır olsa hal‘i lâzım olur mu, beyan buyurula? el-Cevâb: Allāhü Teâlâ a‘lem, olur” (Danişmend, IV, 260) denilmekte ve sebep olarak padişahın aklî melekelerindeki bozukluk gösterilmektedir. Halbuki padişahın aklî melekelerinin yerinde olduğu bilinmekteydi. Bundan dolayı Abdülaziz’in hal‘ine ulemâdan karşı çıkanlar olmuştur. Nitekim Şerîf Abdülmuttalib b. Gālib buna itiraz edecek olmuş, ancak Hayrullah Efendi kendisine bu meselenin tartışma konusu edilmeyeceğini, saraya bunu tartışmak için değil yeni padişaha biat için çağrıldığını söylemiş, durumun siyasî bakımdan uygun olmadığını gören Abdülmuttalib Efendi yeni padişaha biattan başka çare bulamamıştır (Mâbeyinci Fahri Bey, s. 123). II. Abdülhamid’in hal‘ fetvasında da dinî kitapları yaktırması, devlet malını israf etmesi, hukukî bir mesnede dayanmadan kişileri ölüm, hapis ve sürgün cezalarına çarptırması gibi sebepler gösterilmiştir ki (Düstur , I, 166) bunların gerçekten tahakkuk edip etmediği tartışmalıdır.
Osmanlı Devleti’nde hal‘ sebeplerinden biri olan akıl hastalığının gerçekten mevcut olduğu veya böyle bir şüphenin bulunduğu vak‘alara da rastlanmaktadır. Kesin olmamakla birlikte I. Mustafa ile V. Murad’ın hal‘ vak‘aları buna örnek gösterilebilir. Özellikle I. Mustafa’nın hal‘i hukukî dayanağı bakımından ilginçtir. Onun ikinci defa hal‘i sırasında Şeyhülislâm Zekeriyyâzâde Yahyâ Efendi, Vezîriâzam Kemankeş Ali Paşa ve başta kazaskerler olmak üzere diğer devlet erkânı toplanarak meseleyi görüşmüşler, ardından padişahın annesine haber göndererek padişaha adını ve içinde bulunulan günü soracaklarını, bunlara cevap vermediği takdirde hal‘edileceğini bildirmişler; ancak bunlara gerek kalmadan hal‘ olayı gerçekleşmiş ve IV. Murad tahta çıkarılmıştır. II. Mustafa ve IV. Mehmed görevlerini gereği gibi yapmadıkları, IV. Mustafa ise suçsuz bir hükümdarın (III. Selim) öldürülmesine sebebiyet verdiği gerekçesiyle hal‘edilmiştir ki bu son vak‘a halifenin fâsık olması sebebiyle hal‘edilmesi kategorisine dahil edilebilir.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1997 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 15. cildinde, 218-221 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.