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HAŞÎŞİYYE Skip to content Ortaçağ’da Suriye’deki Nizârî İsmâilîler için kullanılan aşağılayıcı bir isim.
Sözlükte “kuru ot” anlamına gelen haşîş kelimesi, sonraları müslümanlarca uyuşturucu özelliği bilinen Hint keneviri ve bundan elde edilen esrar için kullanılmıştır. Haşîşiyye, haşîşî (esrar içen, esrarkeş) kelimesinden türetilmiş topluluk ismidir; haşîşîn, haşîşiyyûn/haşîşiyyîn, haşşâşûn/haşşâşîn ve haşhaşîler de denilir. Haşîşiyye adının, Nizârî İsmâilîler’e verilmeden önce en azından XI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında ortaya çıktığı, onlar için ilk defa 1123’te Fâtımî Halifesi Âmir-Biahkâmillâh tarafından, Suriye’ye gönderdiği Nizâriyye aleyhtarı fikirler içeren ikinci mektubunda kullanıldığı görülmektedir (Daftary, s. 29-30, 91). Bündârî, İran’daki İsmâilîler için Bâtıniyye ve Melâhide, Suriye’dekiler için Haşîşiyye tabirlerine yer vermiştir (Zübdetü’n-Nuṣra , s. 169, 195). Ebû Şâme, Suriye’deki İsmâilîler’den Haşîşiyye ve reisleri Râşidüddin Sinân’dan “sâhibü’l-haşîşiyye” olarak bahseder (Kitâbü’r-Ravżateyn , II, 610-611, 658-660). İbn Haldûn ise Suriye’deki Haşîşiyye’nin kendi zamanında Fidâviyye adıyla tanındığını kaydeder (Mukaddime , I, 312). Ancak Şark İslâm tarihi kaynakları çok defa bunları İsmâilî, Melâhide veya Nizârî diye adlandırır. Makrîzî, VIII. (XIV.) yüzyıl sonunda Kahire’ye gelen İsmâilî olması muhtemel bir mülhidi anlatırken bu kişinin haşîş yapıp sattığını ve çevrede fesada sebebiyet verdiğini belirtmekle birlikte İsmâiliyye’nin Haşîşiyye adıyla anıldığına dair bir kayıt koymamıştır. Sonuç olarak Suriye’deki Nizârîler’e daha çok haşîş kullandırdıklarından ve fedâîlerin fiillerinin kötülüğünden dolayı hakaret ifade etmek üzere Haşîşiyye denildiği ileri sürülebilir.
Fâtımî halifelerinden Müstansır-Billâh’ın ölümünün ardından (1094) yerine geçemeyen büyük oğlu Nizâr’ın ve soyunun imâmetini savunan Hasan Sabbâh, 483 (1090) yılında başta Alamut olmak üzere İran ve Irak’taki çeşitli kaleleri ele geçirerek Nizârî teşkilâtını kurmaya muvaffak oldu. XII. yüzyılın başlarında Selçuklular’ın hâkimiyetinde bulunan Suriye’de başta Masyâf, Bâniyâs, Havâbî ve Kehf olmak üzere Cebeliensâriye’nin hemen hemen bütün kaleleri Nizârîler tarafından zaptedildi. Bu bölgede teşkilâtlanmış olan Nizârîler, genellikle Alamut’ta oturan ve “şeyhü’l-cebel” denilen liderlerinin emriyle muhalif müslüman gruplara ve Haçlılar’a karşı saldırılar düzenlemişler, esrar içirilen fedâîleri vasıtasıyla çok sayıda devlet adamına karşı suikast tertip etmişlerdir. Ancak Haşîşiyye’nin tamamı esrar içen kimseler olarak düşünülmemelidir. Yaygın kabul, fırka liderlerinin, görevlendirdikleri fedâîlere vecd içinde cennet hayalleri görüp ölümü cesaretle karşılamaları ve yapacakları işlerin sonunda ulaşacakları nimetleri önceden tatmaları için esrar içirdikleri şeklindedir. İslâm dünyasına karşı siyasî, içtimaî ve dinî bakımdan ciddi bir tehdit oluşturan Haşîşîler kurbanlarını özenle seçiyorlardı. Bunların bir kısmı idareci, bir kısmı da dinî sınıftandı ve pek azı hariç tamamı Sünnî idi; genel olarak Şiîler’e, hıristiyanlara ve yahudilere saldırmamışlardır.
İran’dan Suriye’ye gelen Alamut casusları İranlı refiklerinin metotlarını kullanmayı denediler; hedefleri terör için uygun merkezler seçmekti. Reisler, bu mensuplarını dağlık bölgelere yönlendirmek amacıyla çalıştılar; başta Masyâf olmak üzere birçok kale ele geçirildi. Haşîşîler, Suriye’de Selçuklu melikleri ve emîrlerle ölçülü bir iş birliği yapmaktan geri durmadılar. Ensâriye dağlarının bulunduğu bölgede bazı kaleleri tahkim edebilmek için yarım asır çalıştılar. Haşîşî reislerinin hepsi Alamut’tan gelmiş ve önce Hasan Sabbâh’ın, sonra da haleflerinin emriyle hareket etmişlerdir. Suriye’de yerleşmek için sürdürdükleri mücadelede 1130 yılına kadar fazla başarı sağlayamadılar. Ancak söz konusu tarihten itibaren ihtiyaç duydukları yerleri zapt ve tahkim etmeye başladılar. Haşîşîler’in Suriye’de işledikleri ilk cinayet, reisleri Hakîm el-Müneccim’in emriyle Humus Emîri Cenâhüddevle’nin şehrin ulucamiinde öldürülmesi olayıdır (496/1103). Haşîşîler’i rakiplerine karşı kullanmak isteyen Halep Selçuklu Meliki Rıdvan onların burada faaliyet göstermesine izin vermiştir. 496’da (1103) ölen Hakîm el-Müneccim’in yerine geçen Ebû Tâhir es-Sâiğ döneminde 1106’da Efâmiye hâkimi Halef b. Mülâib, 1113’te de Haçlılar’a karşı başlattığı cihad harekâtıyla tanınan Selçuklular’ın Musul emîri Mevdûd öldürüldü. Halep’teki Haşîşîler bu gibi cinayetleri sebebiyle halk tarafından sevilmiyordu. Melik Rıdvân’ın ölümünden sonra yerine geçen oğlu Alparslan el-Ahras, Büyük Selçuklu Sultanı Muhammed Tapar’ın emriyle Ebû Tâhir es-Sâiğ ile İsmâil ed-Dâî ve Hakîm el-Müneccim’in kardeşini öldürttü ve çok sayıda haşîşîyi de hapse attırdı. Bütün bunlara rağmen Haşîşîler Halep’teki faaliyetlerini 1124 yılına kadar sürdürdüler. Muhammed Tapar’ın meşhur emîrlerinden Aksungur el-Porsukī, 1126’da Musul’da Câmi-i Atîk’te onların suikastına kurban gitti. 1129’da Atabeg Tuğtegin’in oğlu Böri’nin emriyle Haşîşîler’e karşı büyük bir harekât başlatıldı ve binlerce haşîşî öldürüldü. Böri, bu olaydan sonra Haşîşîler’den korunmak için elbisesinin altına zırh giymeye başladıysa da 1131’de saldırıya uğradı ve aldığı yara yüzünden ertesi yıl öldü. Selçuklular, Haşîşîler’in İslâm âlemi için çok ciddi bir tehlike teşkil ettiklerinin farkında idiler. Bu sebeple aldıkları askerî tedbirlerin yanında halkı aydınlatmak ve İsmâilî fitnesinden korumak amacıyla yoğun faaliyette bulundular ve Bağdat gibi önemli merkezlerde Sünnî düşünceyi yaymak üzere çeşitli medreseler kurdular.
Müstansır-Billâh’tan sonraki Fâtımî halifeleri Haşîşîler’in nazarında birer gāsıptı. Bu sebeple iktidardaki halifeyi hal‘edip Nizâr’ın soyundan birini yerine geçirmek onlar için kutsal bir görev sayılıyordu; bundan dolayı 524 (1130) yılında Âmir-Biahkâmillâh’ı öldürdüler. Haşîşîler zaman zaman Haçlılar’la iyi ilişkiler kurdular ve Suriye’deki siyasî durumdan kendi hâkimiyetlerini sağlamlaştırmak için istifade etmesini bildiler. 535’te (1141) Masyâf, Kehf, Kadmus, Ulleyke ve Havâbî gibi bazı kaleleri ele geçirdiler. Haşîşî reislerinden Ali b. Vefâ, Antakya Prinkepsi Raymond ile Nûreddin Mahmûd Zengî’ye karşı iş birliği yaptı. Zaman zaman da Haçlılar’la mücadele eden Haşîşîler’in 1192’de Kudüs Kralı Conrad de Montferrat’ı öldürmeleri Haçlılar arasında büyük yankı uyandırdı. Alamut hâkimi II. Hasan Alâzikrihisselâm (1162-1166), kendi doktrinini Suriye’de tanıtmak ve yaymak için Râşidüddin Sinân’ı görevlendirdi. Onun idaresindeki Haşîşîler Selâhaddîn-i Eyyûbî ve Haçlılar’la mücadele ettiler. Selâhaddîn-i Eyyûbî Halep (570/1174) ve Arâz (571/1176) kuşatmaları sırasında iki defa Haşîşîler’in suikastine mâruz kaldı ve ikincisinde ölümden kıl payı kurtuldu. Bunun üzerine Râşidüddin Sinân’ın oturduğu Masyâf Kalesi’ni kuşattı ve Haşîşîler’in hâkimiyetindeki bazı yerleri tahrip etti. Ancak Eyyûbîler’in Hama emîri Şehâbeddin Mahmûd el-Harîmî’nin aracılığı ve Haçlılar’ın Dımaşk ve Ba‘lebek’e yaptıkları saldırılar karşısında Sünnî birliğini yeniden sağlamayı ve Batı’dan gelen istilâcıları kovmayı hedefleyen Selâhaddîn-i Eyyûbî, Masyâf kuşatmasını kaldırıp Haşîşîler’le dost geçinmeye karar verdi ve 588’de (1192) Haçlılar’la anlaşma yaparken onların da göz önünde tutulmasını şart koştu; bu Haşîşîler arasında 4000 kadar da yahudi vardı (Şeşen, s. 45-46). Râşidüddin Sinân, bir süre sonra Alamut’tan bağımsız hareket ettiyse de ölümünden (1193) sonra yerine geçen İranlı Nasr devrinde şeyhülcebel Suriye’deki eski otoritesine tekrar kavuştu. Templier ve Hospitalier şövalyeleri Haşîşî kaleleri üzerinde baskı kurup onlardan haraç almaya muvaffak oldular. Haşîşîler, Alamut hâkimi III. Hasan’ın (1210-1220) yeni siyasetinden etkilendiler. III. Hasan Suriye’deki taraftarlarına cami yaptırmalarını, belirli ibadetleri ifa etmelerini, içkiden, uyuşturucudan ve haram olan her şeyden sakınmalarını, şeriatın bütün hükümlerine saygı göstermelerini emrediyordu.
Haşîşîler’e verilen isimlerden haşşâşîn, Haçlılar vasıtasıyla Suriye’den Avrupa’ya taşınmış ve Haçlı literatürü ile Yunan ve yahudi metinlerine girmiştir. Bugün Batı dillerinde “assassin” şeklinde görülen kelime, Avrupa’ya ilk defa intikal ettiğinde birçok şair tarafından “gayretli ve fedakâr” anlamında kullanılmıştır. Sevdiğine bağlılığını ve onun kendisi üzerindeki nüfuzunu ifade ederken “şeyhülcebelin assassin üzerinde bu kadar nüfuzunun bulunmadığını” belirten şair yanında, kendini “sevdiğinin emirlerini yerine getirmek suretiyle cennete girmeye hak kazanacak bir assassin” şeklinde tanımlayanlara da rastlanmaktadır (Chambers, LXIV [1949], s. 245-251). Haçlılar’ın uzun süre Ortadoğu’da kalması ve çeşitli vesilelerle elçi teâtisi, Batılılar’ın Haşîşîler’le ilgili tamamlayıcı bilgilere sahip olmalarını, onları daha yakından tanımalarını sağlamış ve assassin kelimesi de “suikastçı, haince adam öldüren, gizli katil” anlamını kazanmıştır. Marko Polo’nun Seyahatnâme’sindeki ifadeler de (I, 42-45) Avrupalılar’ın konu üzerine dikkatlerini çekmiş ve edebiyatçılar arasında büyük yankılar uyandırmıştır.
İsmâilî olmalarından dolayı mezhebin diğer mensupları ile aynı prensipleri paylaşan Haşîşîler’in en önemli özelliği gizli cemiyet halinde teşkilâtlanmalarıdır. Bu topluma giren kişiler fedâiler, refikler, dâîler ve davetin önde gelen kişileri şeklinde bir sınıflandırmaya tâbi tutuluyorlardı ve liderlerine karşı mutlak surette itaat göstermek, emredilen her şeyi yerine getirmek zorunda idiler. Düşmandan kurtulmak için onu öldürme geleneği bu fırka tarafından sürdürülmüştür. Haşîş kullandırılan fedâîlere hançer verilmek suretiyle düşmanların öldürülmesine dair XII. yüzyılın sonunda Lübeckli Arnold tarafından nakledilen bir rivayet bu konuda dayanılan en eski kaynak olmalıdır. Bu rivayete göre şeyhülcebel ülkesinde bulunan insanların kafasını öyle bulandırmış, onları kendisine öylesine bağlamıştır ki bu insanlar yaşamaktansa ölmeyi tercih etmişler, hatta bazıları şeyhin emriyle yüksek bir kale burcundan atlayıp parçalanmayı dahi göze almışlardır. Canlarını feda etme pahasına birilerini öldürme görevini yüklenen bu kimselere unutkanlık doğuran ve sarhoşluk veren içkiler içiriliyor, yapacakları eylem karşılığında kendilerine sürekli güzellikler vaad ediliyordu (Lewis, Haşîşîler , s. 4). Konuya düşmanın ortadan kaldırılması açısından bakıldığında siyasî cinayet işleme fikrinin Haşîşîler tarafından mukaddes bir vazife olarak kabul edildiği görülür.
İran’daki Nizârî İsmâilîler, 1256 yılında Hülâgû’nun istilâsına mâruz kaldılar. Alamut Kalesi’ni ele geçiren Hülâgû güçleri karşısında tutunamayan son Alamut hâkimi Rükneddin Hürşah yakındaki Meymûndiz Kalesi’ne kaçtı. Daha sonra hayatını kurtarması için mukavemet etmeden teslim olması tavsiyelerine uyarak hanın karargâhına götürülürken yolda öldürüldü. Mensupları da bulunup öldürülerek İran’da Nizârîler bertaraf edilmiş oldu. Suriye’deki Haşîşîler, Moğol tehlikesine karşı Sünnî müslümanlarla iş birliği yapmaya ve Memlük Sultanı I. Baybars’a yaranmaya çalıştılarsa da kendini Ortadoğu’yu Moğol ve Haçlı tehdidinden kurtarmaya adayan Baybars, Suriye’nin ortasında böyle bir terör örgütünün varlığını sürdürmesine müsaade etmedi. Memlükler tarafından kaleleri birer birer ele geçirilen ve 1273’te Kehf’in de zaptıyla Suriye’deki hâkimiyetlerine son verilen Haşîşîler, bu tarihten itibaren siyasî önemlerini yitirmiş küçük bir grup haline geldiler ve bir daha mezhep adına cinayet işlemediler. XIV. yüzyıldan sonra ise Suriyeli ve İranlı İsmâilîler farklı imamlar takip etmeye başlayarak birbirlerinden koptular. XVI. yüzyılda Suriye Osmanlı hâkimiyetine girince devlete özel bir vergi ödemeye başlayan Haşîşîler, XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Selemiye civarında yaşayan barışçı bir bozkır halkı durumunda idiler.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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J. von Hammer-Purgstall, Die Geschichte der Assassinen aus morgenländischen Quellen , Stuttgart 1818.
B. Lewis, “Three Biographies from Kamāl ad-Dīn”, Fuad Köprülü Armağanı , İstanbul 1953, s. 325-329.
a.mlf., “The Ismāʿīlites and the Assassins”, A History of the Crusades (ed. K. M. Setton), London 1969, I, 99-132.
a.mlf., “Assassins of Syria and Ismāʿilis of Persia”, La Persia nel Medioevo , Roma 1971.
a.mlf., Haşîşîler (trc. Ali Aktan), İstanbul 1995.
a.mlf., “İsmâilîler”, İA , V/2, s. 1120-1124.
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a.mlf., History of the Arabs , Hong Kong 1986, s. 446-448.
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Farhad Daftary, The Assassin Legends: Myths of the Isma‘ilis , London 1994.
“Silvestre de Sacy’s Memoir on the ‘Assassins’” (trc. Azizeh Azodi), a.e. , s. 130-188.
Frank M. Chambers, “The Troubadours and the Assassins”, Modern Language Notes , LXIV/4 (1949), s. 245-251.
“Assassins”, EI , I, 491-492.
Max Meyerhof, “Haşîş”, İA , V/1, s. 351-353.
“Haşşâşîn”, a.e. , V/1, s. 355-357.
V. Ivanov, “Râşidüddin Sinan”, a.e. , IX, 635-636.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1997 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 16. cildinde, 418-419 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.