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1/2 Müellif: NEBİ BOZKURT Bölüme Git
Süsleme sanatlarında ve lüks eşya yapımında kullanılan filin kavisli iki iri dişi Arapça’da âc ve nâbü’l-fîl (bu tamlama marfil şeklinde İspanyolca’ya…
2/2 Müellif: SELÇUK MÜLÂYİM Bölüme Git
Sanatta Fildişi. Yontmaya elverişli sağlam ve güzel görünüşlü değerli bir malzeme olması sebebiyle lüks eşya yapımında tercih edilen fildişi dünyanın …
Süsleme sanatlarında ve lüks eşya yapımında kullanılan filin kavisli iki iri dişi Arapça’da âc ve nâbü’l-fîl (bu tamlama marfil şeklinde İspanyolca’ya geçmiştir), azmü’l-fîl ve bazı kabile lehçelerinde hatan adlarıyla anılır (Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “ḥṭn” md.). Mecdüddin İbnü’l-Esîr (III, 316) ve İbn Kuteybe (bk. İbn Hacer, II, 138) gibi bazı müellifler, hadislerde geçen “âc” ile “zebl”in (bağa) kastedilmiş olabileceğini ileri sürmüşlerdir. Câhiz’in naklettiğine göre bazı Hintliler, fildişinin aslında tersine gelişerek damağı delip çıkan boynuz olduğu iddiasındadır (Kitâbü’l-Ḥayevân , VII, 116-117). Türkler çocuklarına Yağan (fil) Tigin gibi bir ad verecek kadar fili tanıdıkları halde Kâşgarlı Mahmud’un fildişinden hiç söz etmeyişi, bu maddenin o dönem Türkler’i tarafından fazla kullanılmamış olmasıyla açıklanabilir. Fildişinin Batı dillerindeki karşılığı olan ve Latince ebur/ebor dan gelen ivoire, ivory kelimesi, benzer özelliklerinden dolayı fildişinin yanı sıra su aygırı, mors, deniz gergedanı, kaşalot ve yaban domuzu gibi hayvanların dişleri için de kullanılmaktadır.
Yazılı Belgelerde Fildişi. Çivi yazılı Akkadca tabletlerde šinni piri (šin [Ar. sin ] “diş”; pir/pil “fil”) şeklinde geçen fildişi, milâttan önce III. binyıldan itibaren Mezopotamya, Mısır. Anadolu ve diğer Ön Asya uygarlıklarında, özellikle mâbed ve saraylarda kullanılan çeşitli lüks eşyanın yapımı için aranan bir malzeme idi. Yazılı belgeler fildişinin Afrika’dan (Sudan, Etiyopya) ve deniz yoluyla Hindistan’dan getirildiğini bildirmekte, tasvirî sanat eserleri de kölelerin omuzlarında taşınan fildişlerinin krallara hediye olarak sunulduğunu göstermektedir. Herodotos, Pers İmparatoru Daryüs’e Etiyopyalılar’ın getirdikleri hediyeler arasında fildişini de sayar (Tarih , III, 97, 114).
Eski Ön Asya fildişi işlemeciliğinin en önde gelen temsilcisi Fenikeliler’dir ve başta Asurlular’la İbrânîler olmak üzere bütün komşu uygarlıkları etkilemişlerdir. Megiddo kazılarında ele geçen fildişi bir paneldeki (m.ö. XII. yüzyıl) taht tasviriyle Ahd-i Atîk’te anlatılan Hz. Süleyman’ın altın kaplama fildişi tahtı (I. Krallar, 10/18-20; II. Tarihler, 9/17-19) arasında tam bir benzerlik bulunduğu görülür (NBD , rs. 114). Ahd-i Atîk’in bazı yazılarında geçen “fildişi (šenhabbîm) ev” ve “fildişi saray” ifadeleri (I. Krallar, 22/39; Mezmurlar, 45/8), üst tabakaya mensup insanların oturdukları mekânları fildişi levhalarla kaplattıklarını göstermektedir. “Neşîdeler Neşîdesi” bölümünde de sevgilinin boynu “fildişi kule”ye benzetilmiştir (7/4). İsrâiloğulları’nın uyarıldığı Amos bölümündeki tehdit sözlerinden, daha sonraki dönemlerde fildişiyle bezenmiş evlerin ve fildişinden yapılmış divan gibi lüks eşyanın çoğaldığını anlamak mümkündür (3/15; 6/4). Hezekiel bölümünde de fildişi kakmalı şimşir kerevetlerden bahsedilmektedir (27/6). Ahd-i Cedîd’de ise “fildişi kap” ifadesine rastlanır (Vahiy, 18/22).
Afrika ve Hindistan’dan gelen ticaret yollarının üzerinden geçtiği Arap yarımadasının fildişi ticaretinde önemli bir yeri olduğu muhakkaktır. Nitekim Fav kazılarında çeşitli fildişi eşyaya rastlanmıştır (Ensârî, s. 28, 99). Câhiliye şiiri de bu bölgede fildişi eşyanın alınıp satıldığını ve bunlara çok değer verildiğini göstermektedir. Amr b. Külsûm’ün sevgilisinin göğüslerini fildişi hokkaya benzetmesi (bk. Tebrîzî, s. 259-260) bu konuda bir fikir vermeye yeterlidir.
Hz. Peygamber’in şahsî eşyası arasında fildişinden (âc) bir tarağın da adı geçmektedir (Hamîdullah, I, 343); İbnü’l-Esîr ise bunun bağadan (zebl) yapılmış olabileceği ihtimalini ileri sürer (en-Nihâye , III, 316). Bu görüşün, fildişinin Mâlikî ve Şâfiîler’ce necis, Hanefîler’ce (İmam Muhammed hariç) temiz sayılması ihtilâfından kaynaklandığı sanılmaktadır. Buhârî’nin İbn Şihâb ez-Zührî’den ta‘lîkan rivayet ettiğine göre Selef ulemâsının bir kısmı fildişi tarak kullanmakta ve fildişinden yapılmış küçük kaplarda muhafaza edilen kokulu yağ gibi maddeleri sürünmekte bir sakınca görmezlerdi. İbn Sîrîn ve İbrâhim en-Nehaî fildişi ticaretini meşrû kabul etmişlerdir (Buhârî, “Vuḍûʾ”, 67) ki bu durum aynı zamanda onların fildişini temiz saydıklarını da gösterir (İbn Hacer, II, 138). Zübeyr b. Avvâm’ın torunu Hişâm b. Urve babasının fildişinden bir tarağı ve bir müddü (yaklaşık 0,7 litrelik bir ölçek) olduğunu söyler; Tâvûs’un da sapı fildişinden yapılmış bir bıçağının bulunduğu rivayet edilir (Abdürrezzâk es-San‘ânî, I, 69). Fildişini hoş görmeyen rivayetler dahi (a.e., I, 68) özellikle tâbiîn döneminde fildişi eşyanın kullanıldığına işaret etmektedir. Fakihler fildişine, genellikle meytenin (hayvan leşi) eti dışında kalan yün, deri, boynuz gibi kısımlarının kullanılıp kullanılamayacağı tartışmasında yer vermişler ve bunlardan meytenin hiçbir yerinden faydalanılamayacağını savunan bazıları, filin boğazlanması imkânsız olduğu için ölüsünü her hâlükârda meyte kabul etmiş ve dişini de aynı sebeple haram saymışlardır. Hz. Peygamber’den sonra gelen, fütuhat sonucu zenginleşmiş müslümanların fildişi eşya kullandıkları muhakkaktır. Câhiz, Ahnef b. Kays’ın Kûfeliler’e karşı, “Biz sizden fildişi, değerli kereste, ipek ve haraç bakımından daha zenginiz” diye övündüğünü söyler ve bunu fildişinin çok değerli bir madde olduğuna delil gösterir (Kitâbü’l-Ḥayevân , VII, 231-232).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “ḥṭn” md.
Buhârî, “Vuḍûʾ”, 67.
Herodotos, Tarih (trc. Müntekim Ökmen), İstanbul 1973, III, 97, 114.
Abdürrezzâk es-San‘ânî, el-Muṣannef , I, 68-69.
Câhiz, Kitâbü’l-Ḥayevân , VII, 116-117, 231-232.
Hatîb et-Tebrîzî, Şerḥu’l-ḳaṣâʾidi’l-ʿaşr , Mekke 1985, s. 259-260.
İbn Hacer, Fetḥu’l-bârî (Sa‘d) , II, 138.
Aynî, ʿUmdetü’l-ḳārî , Kahire 1392/1972, III, 39-40.
İbnü’l-Esîr, en-Nihâye , III, 316.
G. Loben, Ḥaḍâretü’l-ʿArab (trc. Âdil Züaytir), Kahire 1367/1948, s. 215.
Hamîdullah, İslâm Peygamberi , I, 343.
Abdurrahman Tayyib el-Ensârî, Ḳaryetü’l-Fâv: Ṣûretün li’l-ḥaḍâreti’l-ʿArabiyye ḳable’l-İslâm fi’l-memleketi’l-ʿArabiyyeti’s-Suʿûdiyye , Riyad 1402/1982, s. 28, 99.
H. Lesêtre, “Ivoire”, DB , III, 1042-1046.
NBD , rs. 114.
J. B. Pritchard, “Ivory”, IDB , II, 773-775.
D. J. Wieseman, “Ivory”, NDB , s. 590-591.
R. Pinder-Wilson, “ʿĀd̲j̲”, EI2 (İng.) , I, 200-203.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1996 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 13. cildinde, 73-74 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
Sanatta Fildişi. Yontmaya elverişli sağlam ve güzel görünüşlü değerli bir malzeme olması sebebiyle lüks eşya yapımında tercih edilen fildişi dünyanın en uzak köşelerine kadar ulaşmış, hemen her bölge ve kültür çevresinde tanınmıştır. Gözeneksiz sık dokulu, kemiksi ve ağır bir yapıya sahip olup keski, kalem, kıl testere matkap gibi aletlerle kolayca işlenebilir ve çok güzel perdah kabul eder. İri blokların oyulmasıyla heykel, biblo, kutu, kaşık, kabza vb. eşya yapımında, levha haline getirilmek suretiyle de kaplama ve kakma işlerinde kullanılır.
İlk ürünlerine tarih öncesi çağlarda, mamut dişi parçalar üzerine çizilmiş hayvan tasvirleri ve yine mamut dişinden oyulmuş tanrı figürinleri (heykelcik) şeklinde rastlanan fildişi işçiliği Çin’den Eski Mısır’a, Roma’ya kadar bütün büyük uygarlıklarda en gözde sanat kollarından birini oluşturmuş, Bizanslılar’da ise doruğa çıkmıştır. İslâm dünyasındaki ilk fildişi işçiliğinin birçok sanat dalında olduğu gibi Irak ve Mısır’ın fethinden sonra ortaya çıktığı ve kendi kişiliğini buluncaya kadar da özellikle Bizans sanatının etkisinde kaldığı görülmektedir. Her iki kültür çevresinin bazı ürünleri birbirine o kadar yakındır ki bunları ayırmak mümkün değildir. İslâm merkezleri bu sanatta kısa sürede gelişmiş, Irak ve Mısır’dan sonra Sicilya ile İspanya da bu üretime girmiştir.
İslâm sanatında fildişi işçiliğinin en üst düzeye Endülüs’te ulaştığı görülür. Burada da fildişi daha çok Emevî, Abbâsî ve Fâtımîler’de olduğu gibi minber, kapı kanadı ve diğer ahşap eşya üzerine uygulanan kakmacılıkta ve ayrıca üzerleri bitki, hayvan, insan figürleriyle süslenmiş farklı şekillerdeki sandukçelerle mücevher ve parfüm kutularının yapımında kullanılmıştır. Endülüs fildişi işçiliğinin değerli eşya üreten atölye ve sanatçıların toplandığı başlıca merkezleri arasında Kurtuba ile Medînetüz-zehrâ dikkat çeker. Başlangıçta bütün Emevî sanatında olduğu gibi güçlü Bizans etkisi altında kalınmış, ancak zamanla özel formlar geliştirilmiştir. Halifeler, vezirler ve diğer devlet büyükleri için yapılan sandukçe, kutu ve çekmeceler üzerinde tarihlerin ve kişi adlarının yazılı olması Endülüs fildişi eserlerine belgesel bir değer kazandırmaktadır; bu isimlerin en önemlileri II. Abdurrahman ile II. Hakem’dir. İlk örneklerine IV. yüzyıl Bizans sanatında rastlanan, İslâm sanatında ise Endülüs’ün karakteristiği olan bu kutu ve çekmecelerden yuvarlak gövdeliler tabii silindir şekli muhafaza edilen fildişinden oyularak yekpâre, dörtköşe gövdeliler ise fildişi levhalardan parçalı olarak yapılmıştır. Bunların dış yüzleri genellikle dilimli madalyonlar, sahne teşkil eden kompozisyonlar, hayvan figürleri ve arabesk tarzda girift bitki motifleriyle süslenmiştir. Genellikle bombeli olan kapaklarının kenarında kûfî hatla yazılmış besmele, âyet ve hadisler, çeşitli dualar bulunmakta, ayrıca hediye verenle verilenin ad ve unvanları ile yapılış tarihi, bazan da yapan ustanın adı kaydedilmektedir. Bazı örneklerde insan, hayvan ve bitki kompozisyonlarının yerini ajur tekniğiyle oyulmuş şebeke halinde sembolik çiçek motifleri almıştır.
Anadolu Selçukluları’ndan itibaren gelişmeye başladığı görülen Türk kakma işçiliği (sedefkârî) sedef, bağa ve diğer malzemeler yanında fildişini de kullanmıştır. Kakma, yapıştırma ve kaplama tekniklerinin uygulandığı Osmanlı eserlerinin başlıca örnekleri İstanbul’da Türk ve İslâm Eserleri Müzesi, Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi ve Askerî Müze’de bulunmaktadır. Ahşap kapı kanatları, pencere kepenkleri, rahleler ve Kur’an mahfazalarında görülen fildişi kakmalar, hat ve bitki süslemelerini ait oldukları devrin üslûbuna uygun biçimde yansıtmaktadır. Bunlardan başka beşik, tüfek kabza ve kundakları, aynalar fildişinin kullanıldığı diğer eşya arasındadır. Bu tür uygulamalarda çok defa bağa, abanoz ve sedefle yan yana kakılan veya yapıştırılan fildişi parçalar doku ve renk özelliği sebebiyle, farklı malzemelerden oluşan kompozisyonlara ayrı bir zenginlik katmaktadır.
Osmanlı sanatında fildişi, ek malzeme olarak üzerinde yer aldığı eşyayı zenginleştirdiği gibi ana malzeme olarak da kullanılmıştır. Fildişinin başlı başına ele alınıp biblo gibi işlendiği eserler ayrı ve özel bir yer tutar. Çoğunlukla kalemtıraş sapları ve makta‘larda görülen bu uygulama, fildişi işleme imkânlarının ne derecede zengin olduğunu göstermektedir. Fonksiyonu gereği düz levhalardan kesilerek çeşitli profillerle şekillendirilen makta‘lar ajur tekniğinde oyularak âdeta dantel gibi işlenmiştir. Bu eserlerde birkaç santimetrekarelik alan içerisine, çeşitli bitki kompozisyonları ile tuğra ve yazıların büyük bir ustalıkla yerleştirildiği görülür. Kalemtıraş sapları da bu malzemenin kullanıldığı en güzel örnekler arasındadır. Fildişinin ayrıca Osmanlı tesbihçiliğinde de önemli bir yeri vardır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
G. Migeon, Manuel d’art musulman II, Les Arts plastiques et industriels , Paris 1907, s. 125-148.
J. Ferrandis, Marfiles y Azabaches Espanoles , Barcelona 1928.
J. Beckwith, Caskets from Cordoba , London 1967.
E. Kühnel, Die Islamische Elfenbeinskulturen , Berlin 1971.
S. M. Imamuddin, Muslim Spain , Leiden 1981, s. 119.
M. Rogers, “Osmanische Elfenbeinkunst”, Turkische Kunst und Kultur aus osmanischer Zeit , Frankfurt 1985, II, 339-342.
B. Brend, Islamic Art , Cambridge 1991, s. 56-59.
Al-Andalus (ed. J. D. Dodds), New York 1992, s. 41-47, 190-203, 264-269, 282-292.
Can Kerametli, “Osmanlı Devri Ağaç İşleri, Tahta Oyma, Sedef, Bağ ve Fildişi Kakmalar”, TEt.D , sy. 4 (1961), s. 5-13.
R. Pinder-Wilson, “ʿĀd̲j̲”, EI2 (İng.) , I, 200-203.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1996 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 13. cildinde, 74-75 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.