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GARÂMET Skip to content Borçlunun ödeme yükümlülüğü ve malî ceza anlamında fıkıh terimi.
Sözlükte “bir şeye düşkün olma, bağlanma, ısrar etme” mânasına gelen gurm (garm ) ve bu kökten türeyen garâmet kelimeleri örfte, borç-borçlu veya alacaklı-borçlu arasındaki sıkı bağla ilgili olarak “borcu ödeme veya ödenmesi gereken borç” anlamında kullanılmaktadır. Garîm kelimesi ezdâddan olup hem “alacaklı” hem de “borçlu” mânasına gelirken gārim sadece “borçlu” anlamında kullanılır. Tağrîm ise bir kimseye zimmetinde sabit olup ifası gereken bir borcu ödetmeyi ifade eder.
Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’in altı âyetinde bu kökün çeşitli türevleri sözlük anlamında kullanılmıştır (bk. et-Tevbe 9/60, 98; el-Furkān 25/65; et-Tûr 52/40; el-Vâkıa 56/66; el-Kalem 68/46). Hadislerde de kelimenin çeşitli fiil ve isim kalıplarında sıkça kullanıldığı ve kişinin kefil olma, hırsızlık, cinayet, hac ve ihram yasaklarını ihlâl etme, sahibinin izni olmaksızın ağaçtan meyve toplama, sahipsiz hayvanları izinsiz alıkoyma gibi tek taraflı hukukî işlemlerden veya haksız fiil ve ihlâllerinden doğan ödeme ve tazmin borcunu kapsayacak şekilde geniş bir anlam kazandığı görülür (bk. Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “ġrm” md.). Fıkıh ilim dalında gurm ve garâmetin deyn, ta‘vîz, damân gibi benzeri anlam taşıyan diğer kelimelerle birlikte literatürün tedvinine ve doktrinin oluşumuna paralel olarak borç, tazmin ve malî ceza mânası çerçevesinde bir terim anlamı kazandığı söylenebilirse de bunlardan borç anlamının genelde deyn, tazminin de damân terimleriyle karşılandığı, bu sebeple de garâmet teriminde cezaî sorumluluk grubunda yer alan malî ödeme anlamının daha baskın olduğu görülür.
Borç. Borcun kaynakları ve ödenmesi İslâm borçlar hukukunun genel ve özel hükümleri kapsamında ele alınmakla birlikte borçlu kimseye (gārim) devletin zekât gelirinden pay verilerek desteklenmesi fıkıh literatüründe ayrı bir önem taşır. Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de, devletin zekât gelirinin sarfedileceği sekiz sınıftan birinin borçlular grubu olduğu bildirilir (et-Tevbe 9/60). Hanefî fakihleri âyette geçen gārim kelimesini, “borcu olup onu ödediğinde nisab miktarı malı artmayan kimse” olarak tanımlamış (Serahsî, III, 10), İbnü’l-Hümâm’ın, alacağını tahsil edemeyen ve nisab miktarı malı bulunmayan kimseyi de bu gruba dahil etmesi (Fetḥu’l-ḳadîr , II, 204) sonraki dönem fakihlerince pek benimsenmemiştir (İbn Âbidîn, II, 343). Fakihlerin çoğunluğu ise kendi adına borçlananın yanı sıra toplumsal barışı sağlama ve ara buluculuk yapma amacıyla borçlu konumuna düşen kimsenin de âyette geçen gārim kelimesinin kapsamında olduğu görüşündedir. Bir hadiste, insanlardan para istemenin ancak üç sınıf kimse için helâl olacağı, bunlardan birini “hamâle” yüklenen borçlunun teşkil ettiği (Müslim, “Zekât”, 109; Ebû Dâvûd, “Zekât”, 26), bir başka hadiste de zengin olmasına rağmen zekât alması helâl görülen beş kimseden birinin gārim olduğu bildirilmiş (Ebû Dâvûd, “Zekât”, 24), bu ikinci hadisteki gārim de yine hamâle yüklenen borçlu olarak anlaşılmıştır (Hattâbî, II, 291; Şevkânî, IV, 191). Hamâle, Hicaz-Arap toplumunun kökü İslâm öncesi dönemlere uzanan eski bir âdeti olup toplumda itibar sahibi bir kimsenin, mala veya şahsa karşı işlenen suçlar yüzünden şahıslar ve gruplar arasında baş gösteren tazminat-diyet ihtilâfını gidermek amacıyla üstlendiği ara buluculuk ve para toplama işini ifade eden bir terimdir. Hanefî fakihleri, hamâleyi kefalet grubunda yer alan bir borç olarak gördüklerinden hamâle üstlenen kimseye zekât gelirinden pay alma açısından bir ayrıcalık tanımaz, yukarıdaki hadisleri de hamâleyi üstlendiği halde bunu kendi malından ödemeye gücü yetmeyen kimse olarak te’vil ederler (Cessâs, IV, 328). Fakihlerin çoğunluğuna göre, insanların arasını bulma ve kamu yararı amacıyla böyle bir borç altına giren ve para toplayan kimselere, şahsî malları bakımından zengin olup olmadıklarına bakılmaksızın zekât gelirinden pay ayrılır. Fakihler, kefil olduğu borcun asıl borçlu tarafından ödenmemesi sebebiyle borçlu konumuna düşen kefilin fakir olmadığı sürece âyette zikredilen gārim kapsamına girmeyeceği ve hamâle üstlenen kimseye kıyas edilmesinin doğru olmadığı görüşündedir (ayrıca bk. ZEKÂT ).
Damân. Garâmet ve gurm kelimeleri borçlar hukuku alanında, damân teriminde olduğu gibi hem zilyetlikten hem de zararlı fiilden kaynaklanan ödeme veya zarara katlanma sorumluluğunu ifade eder. Ebû Saîd el-Hâdimî’nin “el-gunm bi’l-gurm” şeklinde ifade ettiği genel kural (Mecâmiʿu’l-ḥaḳāʾiḳ , s. 369) Hz. Peygamber’in, “Haraç damân karşılığındadır” meâlindeki hadisine (Ebû Dâvûd, “Büyûʿ”, 71; Nesâî, “Büyûʿ”, 15) dayanmakta olup bu husus Mecelle ’de, “Külfet nimete ve nimet külfete göredir” (md. 88) şeklinde veya aynı anlamda, “Mazarrat menfaat mukabelesindedir” (md. 87) ve, “Bir şeyin damânı nef‘i mukabelesindedir” (md. 85) küllî kaideleriyle ifade edilmiştir. Bu bağlamda ganimet ve haraç bir şeyden elde edilen her türlü yararı, karşıt anlamlısı olan garâmet de üstlenilen maddî külfeti, harcama yapma, tazmin etme veya zarara katlanma sorumluluğunu ifade eder. Hak ile sorumluluk, nimet ile külfet arasında mâkul bir dengenin bulunması, miras ve ceza hukukundan borçlar hukukuna kadar her alanda İslâm hukukunun temel ilkelerinden biri olmuş, bu sebeple de bir menfaate, bir malın mülkiyet ve yararına sahip olan kimseye denk bir külfetin (nafakayı temin etme, malın zarar ve ziyanını karşılama gibi) yüklenmesine özen gösterilmiştir. Meselâ devlet kimsesiz şahısların velisi sayıldığından hem onların nafakasını karşılama, diyetini ödeme gibi sorumluluklara, hem de bu şahıslara mirasçı olma gibi haklara sahip kılınmış, aynı şekilde âriyet aldığı malı kullanan kimsenin o malın tabii giderlerini de karşılaması gerektiği belirtilmiştir. Şah Veliyyullah’ın, İslâm hukukunda birçok hükmün bu temel ilkeye dayandığını ifade etmesi de bu sebeple olmalıdır (Ḥüccetullāhi’l-bâliġa , II, 781-782).
Malî Ceza. İslâm hukukunda borcun kaynakları arasında yer alan şahsa ve mala yönelik haksız fiil, haksız iktisapla dinî-hukukî düzenin ihlâli eylemleri, borçlu veya suçluya hukukî veya cezaî mahiyette bir ödeme borcu yüklenebilmesinin ana kaynağını teşkil eder. Yapılması istenen ödeme verilen zararın, telef edilen mal ve menfaatin karşılanması amacını taşıdığında genelde tazmin, kişiye malî bir ceza uygulanması amacını taşıdığında ise garâmet veya tağrîm olarak adlandırılır. Ancak bu son gruba giren ödemelerin önemli bir bölümü diyet, erş, hükûmet-i adl, kefâret, fidye vb. özel adlarla anıldığı gibi bunlarda tazmin yönünün mü malî ceza yönünün mü, hatta bir kısmında ibadet yönünün mü ağır bastığı fakihler ve hukuk ekolleri arasında ayrı bir tartışma konusudur.
Dinî-hukukî kuralları ihlâl edenlere, özellikle de şahsa ve mala yönelik haksız fiilde bulunanlara malî ceza verilmesinin, bedenî ve maddî cezalar kadar olmasa da yine uzun bir geçmişi vardır. İnsanlık tarihinde içtimaî ve siyasî teşkilâtlanmaya geçişle birlikte şahsî intikamın yerini kamu düzeni adına cezalandırma, alternatif ceza uygulama düşüncesinin aldığı ve malî cezaların da bu aşamadan sonra gündeme geldiği söylenebilir. Yahudi ceza hukukunda bedenî cezalar ağırlık taşımakla birlikte müessir fiil suçlarında (Çıkış, 21/19, 22/14; Levililer, 24/20), hata ve sebebiyet yoluyla verilen zararlarda (Çıkış, 21/23-37) sorumlu kişinin maddî tazminat vermesi, hırsızın çaldığı malın birkaç katını ödemesi (Çıkış, 22/1-5) gibi malî ceza örneklerine de rastlanır. Roma hukukunda başlangıçta, şahsî intikam fikrinin ve mevcut sosyal yapıyı koruma amacının hâkim olduğu ağır bedenî cezalar uygulanırken On İki Levha Kanunu’ndan sonra malî ceza ve maddî tazminat usulünün yerleşmeye başladığı görülür. İslâm öncesi dönemde Hicaz Arap toplumunda da dinî kuralların ihlâli halinde çok defa malî ceza, şahsa ve mala yönelik suçlarda ise genellikle işlenen suça denk bir bedenî/maddî ceza anlayışı hâkim olmakla birlikte kabile örfünün, kabile büyüklerinin ve hakemlerin otoritesinin malî uzlaşma ve ceza sisteminin yerleşmesinde önemli katkısı olmuştur. Hatta köklü bir devlet geleneğine sahip olan ve merkezî-siyasî teşkilâtlanmaya daha erken dönemlerde geçmiş bulunan Güney Arabistan’da malî ceza uygulamasının Hicaz bölgesine göre daha yaygın olduğu, Hicaz bölgesinde de İslâm döneminden sonra malî ceza usul ve anlayışının belli bir ağırlık ve düzen kazandığı söylenebilir.
Malî ceza uygulaması çok defa suç ve ihlâlleri önlemede tek başına yeterli ölçüde etkili olmadığından İslâm’da gerek dinî mahiyetteki emir ve yasakların, gerekse kamu düzenini ilgilendiren hukukî kuralların ihlâlinde uhrevî-dünyevî, mânevî-maddî, malî-bedenî, ahlâkî-hukukî ve dinî mahiyetteki birçok sonuç ve müeyyide birlikte gündeme getirilmiş, bu konuda dengeli ve alternatifli bir cezalandırma ve telâfi usulü benimsenmiştir. Meselâ bazı dinî hükümlerin ihlâlinde köle azadı veya fakiri doyurma gibi malî fedakârlıkların yanı sıra oruç tutmaya, hatta tövbeye de imkân tanınması; cinayetlerde kısasa alternatif olarak diyet ve erşin öngörülmesi, ayrıca bazı durumlarda kefâretin istenmesi veya mirastan mahrumiyet cezasının getirilmesi; ihram yasaklarının ihlâli halinde fidye olarak kurban kesme, fakiri doyurma, sadaka verme, telef edilen şeyin bedelini ödeme veya oruç tutma gibi bazan tek, bazan birden fazla alternatifi bulunan müeyyidelerin öngörülmüş olması bu anlayışın sonucudur. Hukukî sorumluluk alanında tazmin etme genelde aslî ve birincil bir müeyyide konumunda iken İslâm ceza hukukunda suç ile ceza arasında denklik ilkesi hâkim olduğu ve bu sebeple maddî-bedenî ceza türlerine öncelik verildiği için malî ceza çok defa alternatif ve ikincil bir ceza görünümünde olmuş, bu da İslâm hukukçularını malî ceza uygulamasının bazı suçlara tatbik ve teşmili konusunda genelde bir çekingenliğe sevketmiştir. Bununla birlikte Hz. Peygamber döneminden itibaren hukukî sorumluluk çerçevesini aşan ve aslî ceza hüviyeti taşıyan bir malî ceza ve tazmin uygulamasına rastlanmaktadır.
Hz. Peygamber bir hadiste, ihtiyaç sahibi olup da eteğine toplamaksızın dalındaki meyveyi koparıp yiyen kimseye bir şey gerekmeyeceğini, fakat eteğine doldurup götürürse hem bu topladığı meyvenin bedelinin iki katını ödeyeceğini hem de ayrıca ceza göreceğini belirtmiş (Ebû Dâvûd, “Luḳaṭa”, 10), bir başka hadiste de yitik develeri alıkoyup gizleyen kimsenin bu develerin kıymetinin iki katını ödeyeceğini ifade etmiştir (Ebû Dâvûd, “Luḳaṭa”, 8). Benzeri bir hadiste, barınma yerlerine ulaşmadan hayvanların çalınması halinde suçluya verilecek celde cezasının yanı sıra çaldığı hayvanın kıymetinin iki katının da ödetilmesi hükmü getirilmiştir (İbn Mâce, “Ḥudud”, 28; Nesâî, “Ḳaṭʿu’s-sâriḳ”, 12). Gerek bu hadislerde yer alan kayıtlardan gerekse nisabla ilgili diğer hadislerden (bk. İbn Mâce, “Ḥudud”, 26; Nesâî, “Ḳaṭʿu’s-sâriḳ”, 11-12) hareketle, burada malın muhafaza altında olmaması veya değerinin nisab miktarına ulaşmaması gibi sebeplerle hırsızlık suçunun unsurlarının tamamlanmadığı ve hırsıza aslî-bedenî ceza uygulanamadığı için önleyici mahiyette böyle bir malî ceza öngörüldüğü anlaşılmaktadır. Hz. Ömer’in de böyle bir olayda çalınan devenin kıymetinin iki katını ödettiği rivayeti vardır (el-Muvaṭṭaʾ , “Aḳżıye”, 38). Yine kaynaklarda Resûl-i Ekrem’in, zekât vermekten kaçınan kimselere malının yarısını alma tehdidinde bulunduğu rivayeti yer alır (Ebû Dâvûd, “Zekât”, 5; Nesâî, “Zekât”, 4, 7). Bunlara bir de Hz. Peygamber’in veya Hulefâ-yi Râşidîn’in haramın işlenmesinde kullanılan aletleri imha ettirdiği, içinde şarap satılan dükkânı yıktırıp harem bölgesinde avlanan kimsenin av aletlerine el koyduğu şeklindeki rivayetler de (İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, eṭ-Ṭuruḳu’l-ḥükmiyye , s. 266-279; Şevkânî, IV, 138-140) ilâve edildiğinde, değişik olaylarda suç ve ihlâlin mahiyetine göre farklı ağırlıkta malî ceza uygulanabilmesi imkânının bulunduğu ortaya çıkar.
Hangi suçlara ne tür bir malî ceza verileceği ve bunun miktarının ne olacağı naslarla belirlenmeyip ilgili mercilerin takdirine bırakılmış olduğundan bu tür cezalar İslâm ceza hukukunda ta‘zîr cezaları grubunda yer almış, bundan dolayı literatürde hangi tür suçlara ne tür malî ceza uygulanacağı yönünde bir öneri paketi geliştirilmek yerine usule ilişkin doktriner tartışmalara ağırlık verilmiştir. Fakihler arasındaki konuyla ilgili meşruiyet tartışmaları, suçlu veya kusurlu kimselerin mallarına devlet tarafından malî bir ceza olarak el konulmasının cevazında yoğunlaşır. Fakihlerin önemli bir kısmı, mahkemenin kişileri ceza olarak herhangi bir malî ödemeye mahkûm etmesini, malını telef etmeye veya malında değişiklik yapmaya karar vermesini, yukarıda zikredilen hadislerin ve sahâbe tatbikatının da desteğiyle ilke olarak câiz görmekle birlikte suç-ceza arası dengesizliğe, zulme ve keyfî cezalandırmaya yol açacağı endişesiyle bu konuda hâkime veya devlet başkanına geniş bir takdir hakkı ve yetki vermeyi doğru bulmazlar (Şevkânî, IV, 138-140; İbn Âbidîn, IV, 61-62; ayrıca bk. MÜSÂDERE ). Ancak suçlu veya sorumlu kimseye malî ceza uygulanması konusunda Mâlikî, Hanbelî ve Şîa fakihlerinin oldukça serbest, Hanefîler’in ve kısmen de Şâfiîler’in ise biraz kısıtlayıcı ve temkinli bir tavır içinde olduklarına işaret etmek gerekir.
İbn Teymiyye malî cezaların itlâf, tağyir ve başkasına temlik şeklinde üç türünün bulunduğunu ifade ederek her birine Hz. Peygamber ve Hulefâ-yi Râşidîn dönemlerinden örnekler verir (Mecmûʿu fetâvâ , XXVIII, 109-120). Buna ayrıca daha çok Hanefî literatürde yer alan, suçlu veya sorumlu şahsın bir süre için malından mahrum bırakılması cezası (Bezzâzî, VI, 427; İbn Âbidîn, IV, 61) veya Mâlikî literatürde yer alan devlet hazinesine gelir kaydedilmek üzere verilecek malî cezalar da ilâve edilebilir. Bu son tür, mahiyet ve sonuç itibariyle müsâdere cezasıyla büyük benzerlik gösterir.
Ta‘zîr cezaları grubunda yer alan garâmet, ister tek başına verilsin isterse diğer bedenî ve maddî cezalarla birlikte verilsin aslî ceza niteliğini korur. Fakihlerden bir kısmının, münferit uygulamaları tasvip etmekle birlikte garâmetin veya suçluyu tazmine / para cezası ödemeye mahkûm etme anlamında tağrîmin ta‘zîr cezasının genel bir türü olmasına karşı çıkması, yetkili mercilere böyle genel bir yetkinin verilmesinin yol açabileceği muhtemel keyfîlik ve haksızlıkları önleme düşüncesine dayanır. Aslî-bedenî ve maddî cezaların alternatif bir ceza şekli olarak paraya çevrilmesi ise kısas-diyet arasında belli şartlarda mümkün olsa da kısas ve had cezalarında ilke olarak câiz görülmez.
Mahkeme tarafından hükme bağlanan malî ödeme cezası, diğer borçlarda olduğu gibi borçlunun zimmetine taalluk eden bir borç olarak sabit olur. İslâm hukukunda borcun ifası ve mütemerrit borçlunun ifaya zorlanması yönünde alınmış hacir, haciz, hapis gibi tedbirler bu alanda da gerçekliliğini korur. Hatta bu kimselere diğer borçlulardan ayrı tutulmayarak devletin zekât gelirinden pay ayrılması da mümkün görülmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Meḳāyîsü’l-luġa , “ġrm” md.
Râgıb el-İsfahânî, el-Müfredât , “ġurm” md.
Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “ġrm” md.
Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “ġrm” md.
el-Muvaṭṭaʾ , “Aḳżıye”, 38.
Müslim, “Zekât”, 109.
İbn Mâce, “Ḥudûd”, 26, 28.
Ebû Dâvûd, “Zekât”, 5, 24, 26, “Luḳaṭa”, 10, 18, “Büyûʿ”, 71.
Nesâî, “Zekât”, 4, 7, “Büyûʿ”, 15, “Ḳaṭʿu’s-sâriḳ”, 11-12.
Cessâs, Aḥkâmü’l-Ḳurʾân (Kamhâvî) , IV, 327-329.
Hattâbî, Meʿâlimü’s-Sünen (nşr. İzzet Ubeyd ed-De‘‘âs – Âdil es-Seyyid), Humus 1389/1969-70, II, 291.
Serahsî, el-Mebsûṭ , III, 10.
İbnü’l-Esîr, en-Nihâye , III, 363.
İbn Kudâme, el-Muġnî (nşr. Tâhâ M. ez-Zeynî), Kahire 1969, VI, 480-482.
İbn Teymiyye, Mecmûʿu fetâvâ , XXVIII, 109-120.
İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, İʿlâmü’l-muvaḳḳıʿîn , I, 98-99.
a.mlf., eṭ-Ṭuruḳu’l-ḥükmiyye (nşr. M. Hâmid el-Fıkī), Beyrut, ts. (Dârü’l-kütübi’l-ilmiyye), s. 266-279.
Bezzâzî, el-Fetâvâ , VI, 427.
İbnü’l-Hümâm, Fetḥu’l-ḳadîr (Kahire) , II, 204.
Hâdimî, Mecâmiʿu’l-ḥaḳāʾiḳ , İstanbul 1318, s. 369.
Şah Veliyyullah ed-Dihlevî, Ḥüccetullāhi’l-bâliġa (nşr. Seyyid Sâbık), Kahire, ts. (Dârü’l-kütübi’l-hadîse), II, 781-782.
Şevkânî, Neylü’l-evṭâr , IV, 138-140, 191.
İbn Âbidîn, Reddü’l-muḥtâr (Kahire) , II, 343; IV, 61-62.
Mecelle , md. 85, 87, 88.
Abdülazîz Âmir, et-Taʿzîr fi’ş-şerîʿati’l-İslâmiyye , Kahire 1389/1969, s. 396-429.
Yûsuf el-Kardâvî, Fıḳhü’z-zekât , Beyrut 1389/1969, II, 622-634.
Hamîd M. el-Kamâtî, el-ʿUḳūbâtü’l-mâliyye beyne’ş-şerîʿa ve’l-ḳānûn , Bingazi 1986.
Ahmed Fethî Behnesî, el-Mevsûʿatü’l-cinâʾiyye fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî , Beyrut 1991, IV, 89-92.
“Ġārimûn”, Mv.F , XXXI, 124-125.
“Ġarâmât”, a.e. , XXXI, 147-148.
F. Løkkegaard, “G̲h̲ārim”, EI2 (İng.) , II, 1011-1012.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1996 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 13. cildinde, 359-361 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.