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DAĞISTAN Skip to content Kafkasya’nın kuzeydoğusunda Rusya Federasyonu’na bağlı özerk cumhuriyet.
Türkçe dağ kelimesiyle Farsça -istân ekinin birleşmesinden oluşan Dağıstan kelimesinin etimolojisiyle ilgili çeşitli görüşler ileri sürülmüşse de bunlar faraziye halinde kalmış ve ilmî açıdan yeterli bir izah getirilememiştir. Gerçekte Dağıstan, Türkistan ve Moğolistan örneğinde görüldüğü üzere kavmî bir kavramı değil Araplar’ın eski Medya’ya verdikleri “el-Cibâl” (dağlar) adı gibi coğrafî-topografik mâna ifade eden bir kelimedir.
Kuzeyinde Kalmuk Özerk Cumhuriyeti, doğusunda Hazar denizi, güneyinde Azerbaycan, güneybatısında Gürcistan, batı ve kuzeybatısında Çeçenistan ve Kuzey Kafkasya ile çevrili olan Dağıstan Özerk Cumhuriyeti’nin yüzölçümü 50.300 km2 , nüfusu yaklaşık 2 milyon, başşehri Mahaçkale (315.000 [1989]), diğer önemli şehirleri Derbend, Buynak, Hasavyurt, Kızılyar ve İzerbaş’tır.
Fizikî Coğrafya. Dağıstan, adının da ifade ettiği gibi dağlık bir ülkedir. Güneybatısında, güneydoğu-kuzeybatı doğrultusunda uzanan Kafkas dağlarının 3000 metreyi aşan yüksek zirveleri vardır. Bunların eteğinde, yükseltisi 500 ile 1000 m. arasında değişen tepelerin de bulunduğu dalgalı bir plato yer alır. Bu plato ile Hazar denizi arasında dar bir kıyı ovası uzanır. Kıyı ovasının kuzey kesiminde Terek ırmağının yer yer bataklıklarla kaplı deltası vardır. Ülkenin en kuzeyinde, batı yarısı Çeçen-İnguş Cumhuriyeti sınırları içinde olan Nogay bozkırı bulunur. Güneydoğudan kuzeybatıya doğru Sulak ırmağına katılan Andi-Koysu, Anar-Koysu, Kara-Koysu ve Kazı Kumuk-Koysu çayları akar. Sert ve dik yamaçlı dağlar arasında derin boğazlar yer alır.
Dağıstan’ın iklimi sıcak ve kurudur. Bitki örtüsü yer şekillerine göre çeşitlilik gösterir. Vadilerde ve kanyonlardaki yaprak döken ağaçları yüksek yerlerdeki çam ağacı ormanları takip eder. Orman sınırından daha yüksek yerlerde ise çayırlar görülür.
Etnik Durum ve Din. Tarih boyunca çeşitli kavimlerin göç yolları üzerinde bulunan Dağıstan önemli bir geçit yeri olduğu için muhtelif sebeplerle yurtlarını terkeden insanların bir kısmı buraya yerleşmiş ve böylece ülkenin nüfusunun çeşitlenmesini sağlamışlardır. Dağıstan nüfusunu oluşturan otuz civarındaki etnik gruptan en büyüğü, aralarında Karatay, Andiler ve Didolar’ın da bulunduğu on beş kadar alt grubu içine alan ve sayıları 1980’lerde yaklaşık 450.000 kadar olan Avarlar’dır. Ülkenin orta bölgelerinde yaşayan Dargınlar (250.000), güneydeki dağlık arazide Avarlar ile Dargınlar arasında yerleşmiş olan Lekler (110.000), güneydoğu kesiminde yaşayan Lezgiler (200.000), kuzeydoğuda yaşayan ve Türkçe konuşan Kumuklar (240.000), Khiv ve Tabasaran bölgesindeki Tabasaranlar (85.000), Çeçen Cumhuriyeti’ne yakın yerlerde bulunan Çeçenler (60.000) ve Kuma ile Terek ırmakları arasındaki Nogay steplerinde yaşayan Nogaylar (70.000), Dağıstan’daki önemli etnik toplulukları meydana getirirler. Bunların dışında Rutullar (20.000), Agullar (10.000), Tatlar (10.000), Tatarlar (10.000) ve Tizahurlar (7.000) gibi daha az nüfuslu grupların yanında özellikle şehir merkezlerinde önemli oranda Ruslar ve Ukraynalılar da bulunmaktadır.
Dağıstan nüfusunun büyük çoğunluğu Sünnî müslümandır. Özellikle XVIII. yüzyıldan itibaren Nakşibendî tarikatı bölgede büyük bir nüfuz kazandı ve Ruslar’a karşı başlatılan cihad harekâtını organize ederek prestij sağladı. Dindar olan halk ilme önem vermiş ve hemen her dağ köyünde bir medrese yaptırmıştır. 1913’te Dağıstan’da 360’ı ulucami olmak üzere 2060 cami vardı. Komünist yönetim sırasında bu sayı yirmi yediye düşmüştür (1984).
Ekonomi. Dağıstan petrol, doğalgaz ve maden kaynakları bakımından zengin bir ülkedir. Yüzey şekilleri engebeli olduğundan madenlerden yeterince istifade edilememektedir. Endüstrisinin temeli Mahaçkale ve İzerbaş yakınlarındaki petrol ve doğalgaz yataklarına dayanır. Ayrıca makine ve inşaat malzemeleri yapımı, gıda ve cam üretimiyle ilgili sanayi tesisleri vardır. Halıcılık ve el sanatları yaygındır. Terek ve Sulak nehirleri üzerinde kurulan barajlarda elektrik üretilir. Halkın büyük bir bölümü başta hayvancılık olmak üzere tarımla uğraşır. Hazar denizi sahillerinde balıkçılık önemli bir yer tutar. Dağıstan Bakü, Moskova ve Astragan’a demiryoluyla bağlıdır. Demiryolu istasyonları aynı zamanda karayoluyla da birbirlerine bağlanmıştır. 1989 rakamlarına göre Dağıstan’da 600 orta dereceli okul, yirmi yedi meslek lisesi ve Dağıstan Devlet Üniversitesi’ne bağlı beş yüksek okul vardır.
Tarih. Dağıstan ilk İslâm fetihleri sırasında müslümanların akınlarına mâruz kaldı. Sürâka b. Amr kumandasındaki İslâm ordusu Derbend’in fethiyle görevlendirildi. Sürâka’nın ölümünden sonra Abdurrahman b. Rebîa el-Bâhilî başkumandanlığa getirilerek bölgeye hâkim olan Hazarlar’la savaşa memur edildi. Onun Hazarlar’la çarpışırken şehid düşmesi üzerine kardeşi Selmân b. Rebîa savaşa devam ederek muhtemelen 32’de (652-53) Derbend’i fethetti. Selmân b. Rebîa daha sonra Hazarlar’ın başşehri Belencer’e kadar ilerlediyse de geri çekilmek zorunda kaldı. Emevî Halifesi Hişâm b. Abdülmelik devrinde (724-743) halifenin kardeşi Mesleme fetihleriyle bölgede İslâm hâkimiyetini kurmayı başardı. Daha sonraki yıllarda Emevî kumandanlarından Mervân b. Muhammed de Dağıstan’a başarılı akınlar düzenledi. Fakat bölgedeki İslâm hâkimiyeti, 180 (796) yılında Hazarlar’ın Derbend’i zaptetmesiyle sona erdi. Abbâsîler’in ilk zamanlarında da Hazarlar’la mücadele sürdürüldü. İki asır devam eden bu mücadele müslüman Araplar’ın zaferiyle sona erdi. 815 yılında Şeyh Ebû İshak ile Şeyh Muhammed el-Kindî yaklaşık 2000 kişiden oluşan bir gönüllü ordusuyla Dağıstan’a girerek İslâmiyet’i yaymaya çalıştılar. Dağıstan Abbâsîler zamanında Azerbaycan ve Ermîniye valileri tarafından idare edildi. Abbâsîler’in zayıfladığı bir dönemde 869’da Hâşimî hânedanı Derbend’i merkez yaparak burada hüküm sürmeye başladı. X. yüzyılda Sâcoğulları Derbend’e hâkim olduysa da Hâşimîler kısa bir süre sonra şehri tekrar ele geçirdiler. XI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Selçuklu Türkleri bölgenin bir kısmını hâkimiyetleri altına aldılar. Dağıstan 1222’de Moğol istilâsına uğradı. XI-XIII. yüzyıllarda Karadeniz’in kuzeyinde ve Kafkaslar’da hüküm süren Kumanlar (Kıpçaklar) Dağıstan’a kadar sokularak bölgenin Türkleşmesinde önemli rol oynadılar. Daha sonra sırasıyla İlhanlılar, Altın Orda Hanlığı, Timurlular, Şirvanşahlar ve Safevîler Dağıstan’a hâkim oldular. Dağıstan 1578-1606 yılları arasında Osmanlı hâkimiyeti altında kaldı.
Safevîler’in XVII. yüzyılın başlarında Dağıstan’da Şiîliği yaymak için başlattıkları harekât Dağıstanlılar’ın şiddetli tepkisiyle karşılaştı. 1607’de Şah I. Abbas Şamahı Kalesi’ni kuşatarak ele geçirdi. Osmanlılar burayı hiç kimsenin canına dokunulmaması şartıyla teslim ettikleri halde Şah Abbas pek çok kişiyi öldürttü ve 1639’da Dağıstan’da önemli bir nüfuz tesis etti. Dağıstan XVI. yüzyıldan itibaren Ruslar’ın da ilgisini çekmeye başlamış ve XVII. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren İranlılar, Ruslar ve Osmanlılar arasındaki nüfuz mücadelesine sahne olmuştur.
XVIII. yüzyılın başlarında Safevîler güçlerini kaybetmeye başladıklarında Dağıstanlılar Gazi Kumuk Hanı Çolak Surhay Han’ın önderliğinde birleşerek Şemahi’yi geri almayı başardılar ve İran’a karşı zafer kazandılar (1712). Başarılarını devam ettirmek için Osmanlı yönetiminden yardım isteyen Dağıstanlılar’a Bâbıâli yardım ve hanlarına hediyeler göndererek himayesine aldı.
Rus Çarı Büyük Petro, Rus tüccarlarının öldürülmelerini bahane ederek 1722’de İran’a karşı bir savaş açtı ve Derbend’i işgal etti. Osmanlı Devleti, kendi himayesinde olduğundan Petro’yu protesto edip Derbend’i terketmesini istedi. Ruslar Dağıstan’ın iç kısımlarında tutunamamışlarsa da Hazar sahillerine doğru egemenliklerini genişlettiler ve ancak Mustafa Paşa idaresindeki Osmanlı kuvvetlerinin yardımıyla Bakü önlerinde durdurulabildiler. Rusya ile İran arasında 1724’te imzalanan bir antlaşma ile Derbend, Bakü ve bölgedeki diğer bazı yerler Rusya’ya bırakıldı. Nadir Şah, Ruslar’a karşı sürdürdüğü mücadeleler sonunda 1732’de imzalanan Reşt Antlaşması’yla Dağıstan’ın güneyini, Derbend ve Bakü’yü, 1735 tarihli antlaşma ile de Sulak ve Kura (Kür) nehirleri arasında kalan bazı toprakları ele geçirdi. 1747’den sonra Ruslar Dağıstan’da yeniden nüfuz kazanmaya çalıştılar. 1785’te Kafkasya valiliğini ihdas ederek hâkimiyetlerini büyük ölçüde sağlamlaştırdılar. İmam Mansûr Dağıstanlılar’ı bir safta toplayıp bütün İslâm ülkelerini cihada çağırdıysa da başlatılan isyan başarılı olmadı. 1791’de esir alınan İmam Mansûr’un 1794’te öldürülmesinden sonra yerine Gazi Muhammed geçti. Onun zamanında Ruslar’la İranlılar arasında imzalanan Gülistan Antlaşması ile (1813) Dağıstan Ruslar tarafından ilhak edildi. Gazi Muhammed 1832’de Ruslar’la çarpışırken şehid düştü. Yerine geçen Hamzat Bey ölümüne kadar (1834) mücadeleyi sürdürdü. Onun vasiyeti üzerine imamlığa seçilen Şeyh Şâmil cihad hareketini daha ciddi bir şekilde organize etti ve tam yirmi beş yıl boyunca Ruslar’la kahramanca savaştı. Nihayet 25 Ağustos 1859’da General Baryatinski kumandasındaki ağır silâhlı Rus birliklerine teslim olmak zorunda kaldı. Ruslar Şeyh Şâmil’in teslim olmasından sonra imamlara karşı mahallî beyleri destekleme kararı aldılar. Ancak 1862’de bu siyasetten vazgeçip Avar Hanlığı’na son verdiler ve idareyi askerî valilere bıraktılar. 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Savaşı’ndan faydalanan Dağıstanlılar Abdurrahman Efendi başkanlığında millî bir hareket başlattılar. Ancak Ruslar Osmanlı sınırından çektikleri askerleri Dağıstan’a sevkederek bu isyanı bastırdılar. 1905’te başlatılan ikinci isyan da başarılı olmadı. 1917 Bolşevik İhtilâli’nden sonra Terek-Dağıstan mahallî hükümeti kuruldu. 11 Mayıs 1918’de Dağıstan Osmanlılar’ın desteğiyle Dağıstan ve Kuzey Kafkasya Cumhuriyeti adı altında bağımsızlığını ilân etti. Fakat Abdülmecid Çermoyev başkanlığındaki yeni hükümet duruma yeterince hâkim olamadan Mondros Mütarekesi imzalandı ve Osmanlı ordusu Kafkasya’yı tahliye etti. Böylece Rus kuvvetleri önünde yalnız kalan Dağıstan 1919’da yeniden işgal tehlikesiyle karşılaştı. 30 Mart 1920’de Kızılordu Timurhanşura’ya girdi ve Dağıstan’ı işgale başladı. 20 Ocak 1921’de Rusya Federatif Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyeti’ne tâbi Dağıstan Özerk Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyeti kuruldu. 1922-1923 yıllarında Hasavyurt, Kızılyar, Acıgöl sancak ve bölgeleri de Dağıstan’a dahil edildi. II. Dünya Savaşı’nın başında Dağıstan’ın Terek ve Kuma ırmakları arasında kalan kuzey kısmı Rusya Federatif Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyeti’ne bağlandı. Ancak 1957’de bu bölgenin küçük bir kısmı hariç geri verildi. Sovyetler Birliği’nin dağılmasından sonra Dağıstan Rusya Federasyonu’na bağlı özerk cumhuriyet statüsünü korumuştur.
Dil ve Edebiyat. Pek çok kavmin birbirine karıştığı ve birlikte yaşadığı bir ülke olan Dağıstan’ın dil ve edebiyatı çeşitlilik gösterir. 1640’ta Dağıstan’ı ziyaret eden Evliya Çelebi, bugün Dağıstan’daki mahallî dilleri konuşan Kaytaklar’ın o zaman Moğolca konuştuklarını ve bunların Mâhân’dan gelme Moğol Türkleri olduklarını söyler (Seyahatnâme , II, 292). Dağıstan’da Hunzak, Hundaşı, Balkar, Kazar-Begüm, Okuzkent, Bayat, Etrek, Terekeme gibi Hun, Avar, Bulgar, Hazar ve Oğuz Türkleri’ne ait bazı yer isimleri hâlâ muhafaza edilmektedir. Çok sayıda etnik unsurun yaşadığı Dağıstan’da dil birliğini sağlamak her zaman ilk sırayı işgal eden önemli meselelerden biri olmuştur. Araştırmalar, Dağıstan dillerinin Türkçe etrafında birleşmeye doğru bir tekâmül seyri takip ettiğini göstermektedir. 1860’ta Kaluga’da sürgün hayatı yaşayan Şeyh Şâmil’i ziyaret eden İ. Zahar hâtıratında Şeyh Şâmil ile Avarlar’dan oluşan maiyetinin Âzerî Türkçesi konuştuklarını ve Kazan Türkleri’nden olup Rus ordusunda hizmet gören askerlerin de onlarla Âzerîce konuştuğunu anlatır (İA , III, 450). 1917’deki ihtilâlden sonra hükümet eğitim ve öğretimin ilkokullarda mahallî dillerde, ortaokuldan itibaren ise Türkçe yapılmasına ve devlet dili olarak da Türkçe’nin kullanılmasına karar vermiştir. Ancak 1930 yılına kadar devam eden bu uygulamadan sonra Ruslar daha sonra Rusça’yı resmî dil ilân ettiler. Âsâr-ı Dağıstân adlı eserin yazarı Mirza Hasan Efendi Alkadarî gibi birçok müellif eserini Türkçe kaleme almıştır. Dağıstan dillerinde özellikle şifahî halk edebiyatı gelişmiştir ve Dağıstan çok zengin bir folklora sahiptir. Halk türküleri ve destanlarında başta Şeyh Şâmil olmak üzere Dağıstanlı mücahidlerin kahramanlıkları dile getirilir. Ayrıca Hz. Peygamber ile Ehl-i beyt ve ashâb-ı kirâmın hayatını anlatan manzum eserler yaygındır. Edebî eserler ise Avarlar ve Lekler’de XVII. yüzyıldan başlayarak büyük gelişme göstermiştir. Yazılı edebiyatın ilk örnekleri arasında Leylâ ve Mecnûn , Tâhir ile Zühre gibi edebî eserler, Dağıstanlılar’ın Ruslar’la mücadelesini anlatan kahramanlık hikâyeleri ve tıbba dair kitaplar bilhassa yaygındır. Lezgiler ve Kumuklar da XIX. yüzyılda yazılı edebiyata geçtiler ve özgürlük konusunda manzum eserler yazdılar. Dağıstanlı meşhur şairler arasında İrçi Kazak, Manay Alibeyoğlu, Mugan Batır, Temir Bulat, Mahmut, Hamza Tsadas ve XX. yüzyılın meşhur şairi Resul Hamzat sayılabilir. Resul Hamzat’ın Dağıstan edebiyatına dair eseri Benim Dağıstanım adıyla Türkçe’ye çevrilmiştir (İstanbul 1984).
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1993 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 8. cildinde, 404-406 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.