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ARAZİ Skip to content Nevilerine göre kendisine çeşitli hükümler bağlanan yer, toprak.
Arazi kelimesi “yer” anlamına gelen Arapça arz ın çoğuludur. Genel kaideye uygun olan çoğul şekilleri arazûn ve urûz ise de asıl kullanılan, gayri kıyâsî çoğul kalıplardan olan arâzî dir. Günümüz ve eski hukuk dilinde de bu ifade tercih edilmiştir (bk. Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “arż”; TMK , md. 632; AK , md. 1 vd.). Arazinin hukukî statüsünün tam olarak anlaşılabilmesi için diğer toplumlarda, İslâm hukukunda ve Osmanlı uygulamasında arazinin hukukî durumu ve özellikle mülkiyetiyle ilgili hükümleri ve tarihî gelişimi özetlemek gerekir.
A) Çeşitli Toplumlarda Arazi. İlkel toplumlarda arazi mülkiyetinde ruhanî ve mistik yön ağır basmaktadır. Bu sebeple insanlar bazı menkul eşyaların dışında hiçbir şeye mâlik olamayacaklarını sanıyorlar, ilâhîlik vasfından dolayı araziye sahip çıkamıyorlardı. Onların inançlarına göre insana ve araziye hâkim olan ilâhlardı. Denizler, dağlar ve bahçeler de ilâhlaştırılmış olan arazinin parçalarıydı. Zamanla arazinin mâliki ve hâkimi olarak ilâhların temsilcileri sayılan hükümdarlar kabul edilmeye başlandı. Sumerler toprağa taparlardı. Mısırlılar Nil nehrinin kendilerine ilâhî bir armağan olduğunu kabul ederlerdi. Romalılar mukaddes şeylerin (res divini Juris) başında araziyi de sayarlardı. Yahudiler toprağın rabbe ait olduğuna inanmaktadırlar. Yunanlılar’ın en eski ibadet şeklinin toprağa tapınma olması da bu inançtan ileri gelmektedir. Hatta en büyük tanrıları yer tanrısı olan Demetre’dir. Tatarlar evcil bazı hayvanlar dışında hiçbir şeye mâlik olamayacaklarına inanırlardı.
Arazi üzerindeki bu ilâhî mülkiyet anlayışı zamanla yerini krallar, emîrler ve senyörler mülkiyeti anlayışına terketmiştir. Cermenler’de toprağa ancak emîrler ve reisler sahip olabilmekteydi. Reisler araziyi nöbetleşe halka taksim ederlerdi. Bâbil hukukunda da benzeri uygulama görülmektedir. Ortaçağ’da Avrupa’da hâkim olan feodal toprak düzeni de bundan farklı değildi. Senyör denilen bazı savaşçılar belli toprak kesimlerinin mâlikiydi. Toprağı işleyen köylü yarı köle durumunda yani serfti. Arazi de dahil her türlü taşınır ve taşınmaz mallar üzerinde mülkiyet hakkı ancak 1789 Fransız İhtilâli’nden sonra 1791 tarihli fermanla fertlere de tanınmıştır.
B) İslâm Hukukunda Arazi. İslâm’da toprağın ilâhîlik vasfından dolayı mülkiyete konu olmayacağı şeklinde bir telakki mevcut değildir. Yerin, göğün, her şeyin yaratıcısı Allah olduğundan itikadî açıdan her şeyin gerçek mâlikinin de Allah olduğu temel ilkedir. Ancak bu hukukî mânada mülkiyet hakkının fertlere tanınmasına engel değildir. Sadece fertler bunu Allah’ın ihsanı bilerek ona göre tasarrufta bulunmaya davet edilmiştir. Son zamanlarda ortaya atılan bazı iddiaların aksine, İslâm hukukunda arazi hem kamu mülkiyetine hem de ferdî mülkiyete konu olabilmektedir. Arazinin ferdî mülkiyete konu olabildiğini gösteren Kur’an âyetleri ve hadisler mevcuttur (bk. el-Bakara 2/107, 267; el-En‘âm 6/141; er-Rahmân 55/1-10; hadisler için bk. Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “arż” md.).
Bütün İslâm hukukçuları arazinin hem özel hem de kamu mülkiyetinin konusu olabileceğinde ittifak etmişlerdir. Ancak arazinin müslümanların eline geçiş tarzının arazi mülkiyetine etkili olduğunu belirtmişler ve bu konuda bazı farklı görüşler ileri sürmüşlerdir. Bu görüşler özetle şöyledir:
1. Ahalisi Müslüman Olan Arazi. Bütün İslâm hukukçuları, herhangi bir savaş söz konusu olmaksızın ahalisi müslüman olan arazinin, üzerinde yaşayan tebaanın özel mülkleri olduğunda ittifak etmişlerdir. Devletin bu gibi mülk araziler üzerinde hiçbir tasarruf ve mülkiyet hakkı yoktur. Medine, Tâif, Yemen, Bahreyn ve Endonezya arazileri gibi. Devlet bunlardan sadece öşür alabilir. Bunlar arâzî-yi öşriyyedir (Ebû Yûsuf, s. 68-69).
2. Barış Yoluyla Elde Edilen Arazi. Müslüman olmamakla beraber İslâm devletiyle barış yapmak isteyen ve İslâm devletinin tebaası olmayı kabul eden insanlara ait arazinin mülkiyet durumu, müslümanlarla yaptıkları sulh akdinin hükümlerine tâbidir. Bu konuda Hanefî hukukçularla diğer İslâm hukukçuları arasında görüş ayrılığı vardır. Hanefîler’e göre bu arazi gayri müslim ahaliye mülkleri olarak bırakılmakta ve İslâm devleti bu çeşit araziden sadece haraç alabilmektedir. Bu arazi arâzî-i harâciyye nin bir çeşididir (Ebû Yûsuf, s. 69 vd.; Ebû Ubeyd, s. 189 vd.). Diğer İslâm hukukçuları ise ya Hanefîler’in dediği gibi yerli gayri müslim ahaliye terkedileceğini, yahut da sulh akdi ile arazinin kuru mülkiyetinin (rakabe ) müslümanlara ait olduğunu, fakat belli bir kira bedeli karşılığında yerli ahaliye kiralanacağını ileri sürmüşlerdir. Bu çeşit araziye müslümanlara vakfedilen arazi denmekte ve bununla arazinin üzerinde temlikî tasarrufta bulunulmayacağı kastedilmektedir. Yoksa burada hukukî anlamda vakıf arazi söz konusu değildir (Şâfiî, IV, 104; İbn Kudâme, II, 583 vd.).
3. Savaş Yoluyla Elde Edilen Arazi. Bu arazi konusunda önemli görüş ayrılıkları mevcut olup bu görüşleri dört ana grupta toplamak mümkündür. a) Şâfiîler, Zâhirîler ve Hanbelîler’le Mâlikîler’den bir gruba göre, devlet reisi bu çeşit araziyi savaşa katılan gazilere taksim eder; ancak gaziler kendi rızalarıyla bu haklarından amme menfaati namına vazgeçerlerse devlet reisi bu araziyi müslümanlara vakfedebilir yani kamuya tahsis eder (Şâfiî, IV, 103). b) Ca‘ferîler’e ve Mâlikîler’in çoğunluğuna göre bu çeşit arazi devlet reisinin vakfetmesine gerek kalmadan sadece fethedilmekle müslümanlar için vakıf haline gelir (İbn Kudâme, II, 581-583). c) Hanbelî mezhebinde tercih edilen diğer bir görüş de devlet reisinin araziyi gazilere taksim etme veya müslümanlara vakfetme hususunda tercih hakkına sahip olduğu yolundadır (Ebû Ubeyd, s. 70 vd.; İbn Kudâme, II, 581-583). d) Hanefîler’e ve Zeydîler’e ait son görüş ise devlet reisine kamu yararına göre tercihte bulunmak üzere üç ayrı hak tanımaktadır. 1. Gazilere taksim ve temlik etmek. Buna esas teşkil eden hadise, Hz. Peygamber’in Hayber arazisini gazilere taksim edişidir. Bu durumda arazi, mülk arazi çeşitlerinden olan öşür arazisi haline gelir. 2. Yerli gayri müslim ahalinin mülkü olmak üzere ellerinde bırakmak. Hz. Ömer’in Haşr sûresinin yedinci âyetine ve ashâbın icmâına dayanarak yeni fethedilen Irak arazisini (Sevâd-ı Irak) gazilere taksim etmeyip yerli gayri müslim ahaliye bırakması ve onları haraca bağlaması bu görüşün esasını teşkil eder. 3. Arazinin rakabesini beytülmâle bırakıp tasarruf hakkını ahaliye vermek. Bütün mezheplerde nazarî olarak kabul edilen, ancak asıl uygulamasını Osmanlı Devleti’nde bulan beytülmâl arazisi (mîrî arazi) uygulaması bunun en güzel örneğidir (bk. Ebû Yûsuf, s. 30 vd.; Tahâvî, III, 246-251).
4. Ahalisi Sürgün Edilen Arazi. Bu çeşit arazi Hanefîler’e göre ya ahaliye terkedilir ve bu durumda haraç arazisi olur veya beytülmâle bırakılır. Hanefîler dışındaki diğer İslâm hukukçuları ise bazı görüş ayrılıklarına rağmen İslâm cemaati lehine vakıf olacağını savunmaktadırlar.
Sonuç olarak, İslâm devletinin teşekkülünden sonra müslümanlara ait araziler şu statülere tâbi tutulmuştur: Ahalisi kendiliğinden müslüman olan veya savaş yoluyla fethedilip de gazilere taksim edilen arazilere, öşür vergisine tâbi tutuldukları için arâzî-i öşriyye denmiştir. Hz. Peygamber tarafından fethedilerek gazilere taksim edilen Hayber arazisi ve kendiliğinden müslüman olan Yemen ve Bahreyn arazisi bu durumdadır. Bunlar mülk arazilerdir. Barış yoluyla haraç vergisine bağlanan yahut savaşla elde edildiği halde gazilere dağıtılmayıp yerli gayri müslim ahaliye bırakılan yerlere arâzî-i harâciyye denmektedir. Hanefîler’e göre Irak arazisi bu çeşit arazilerin başında gelmektedir. Arâzî-i harâciyye statüsünü bütün ayrıntılarıyla ilk uygulayan Halife Ömer olmuştur. Basra ve çevresi bu uygulamanın dışında tutularak öşür arazisi kabul edilmiştir. Daha sonraları Mısır ve Suriye arazilerinin de harâcî arazi statüsünde bulunduğu nazarî ve tatbikî alanda kabul edilmiştir. Ancak bu araziler meydana gelen harpler ve muhaceretler sebebiyle zamanla beytülmâl arazisine dönüşmüştür. Öşür arazisi veya harâcî arazi statüsüne tâbi olmayan bir üçüncü grup arazi daha vardır ki bunlara Hanefîler beytülmâl arazisi, arz-ı taz‘îf, arâzî-i memleket vb. adlar vermişlerdir. Osmanlı padişahları “şer‘-i şerîf”in kendilerine tanıdığı tercih hakkını kullanarak Anadolu arazisini bu statüye tâbi kılmışlardır. Hanefîler’in dışındaki diğer İslâm hukukçuları ise bu çeşit araziye “müslümanlar için vakıf arazi” adını vermişler ve Irak arazisini bu şekilde nitelendirmişlerdir. Ancak bu tabirle kastedilen arazi gerçek vakıf arazisi değildir. Bundan, bu çeşit arazinin rakabesinin her çeşit temlikî tasarruflardan uzak tutularak kamuya (müslümanlara) ait olması ve işletilerek elde edilecek gelirinin de müslümanların ihtiyaçlarına sarfedilmesi mânası anlaşılmalıdır. Bu ise Osmanlılar’ın uyguladığı mîrî arazi rejiminden başka bir şey değildir. Ancak bazı Avrupa ve Türk hukukçularının vakfın bu anlamı konusunda hataya düştükleri görülmektedir. Irak arazisi hususundaki uygulamada Hanefîler’in görüşü tercih edilmiş ve Irak arazisi sahiplerinin mülkü olarak alınıp satılmıştır, hatta vakfedilegelmiştir.
Buna göre öşür ve haraç arazilerinin mülk arazi olduğu, müslümanlara vakıf yahut beytülmâl arazisi denilenlerin mîrî araziye benzediği anlaşılmaktadır. Mülk arazi sahipleri bunlardan bir kısmını sahih olarak vakfedince de gerçek anlamda vakıf arazi çeşidi ortaya çıkmıştır. Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi’ndeki tapu tahrir defterlerinde bulunan kayıtlardan anlaşıldığına göre bu üç çeşit arazi Abbâsîler ve Eyyûbîler devrinden beri mevcuttur (BA, TD , nr. 522). Bunların yanında, umumun veya ammeden bir kısmının menfaatine terkedilen caddeler, meydanlar ve meralar gibi İslâm’ın ilk devirlerinden beri bilinen ve metrûk arazi denilen arazi türü vardır. Osmanlı kanunnâmelerinde bu çeşit arazinin zikredilmemesi onun mevcut olmadığını göstermez. 1274 tarihli arazi kanunnâmesiyle bu arazi hakkındaki statü kanunlaştırılmıştır. Fıkıh kitaplarının hepsinde bu çeşit arazilere mahsus hükümler vardır (meselâ bk. Mecelle , md. 1271). Ayrıca, “sahipsiz ve ölü yerler” demek olan arâzî-i mevât da bütün fıkıh kitaplarında “İhyâ-i Mevât” başlığı altında incelenmektedir. Bunlar Mecelle ’de kısmen de olsa aynen tedvin edilmiştir (bk. md. 1270-1291).
Hanefîler’in araziyi tasnif hususundaki görüşleri uygulamada kendisini kabul ettirmiş, Abbâsîler, Eyyûbîler, Memlükler, Selçuklular ve Beylikler döneminde söz konusu tasnif esas alınmıştır.
C) Osmanlı Uygulaması. Osmanlı Devleti, İslâm hukukunu bütün müesseseleri ve hükümleriyle resmen uygulayan en büyük ve en uzun ömürlü devlettir. İslâm hukukunun arazi rejimini de Hanefî mezhebi çerçevesinde, bazı yönlerini zamanın icap ve ihtiyaçlarına göre uyarlayarak tatbik etmiş ve toprak rejimini mimarideki emsalsiz eserleri gibi hukukî bir âbide olarak tarihe yazmıştır. Burada, mazbatasındaki ifadelerle, “araziye dair Osmanlı kanunları, daha önce zaman zaman İslâm hukukuna riayet edilerek çıkarılan yüce emirlerin ifade ettikleri kıymetli hükümlerden ibarettir ki cennetmekân Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman Han hazretlerinin ahd-i saltanatlarında ikmal olunmuştur” şeklinde tavsif edilen 1274 tarihli arazi kanunnâmesi esas alınarak, arazi tasnifi ve bu tasnifte yer alan arazi çeşitleri üzerinde durulacaktır.
Daha önce fıkıh kitaplarında ifadesini bulan ve İbn Kemal ile Osmanlı arazi rejiminin mimarı olan Ebüssuûd tarafından geliştirilen tasnife göre Osmanlı toprakları hukukî durumu bakımından beş çeşittir (AK , md. 1).
1. Arâzî-i Memlûke. Bunlarda mülkiyet hükümleri geçerlidir. Mâlikleri bu çeşit arazi üzerinde her türlü tasarrufta bulunabilir ve sahih olarak vakıf da yapabilirler. Arâzî-i memlûkeyi beş grupta toplamak mümkündür. a) Köy ve şehir içlerinde bulunan bütün arsalarla köy ve şehirlerin kenarlarında olup tetimme-i süknâ denilen yarım dönümlük (800 zira‘lık) yerler (Mecmûa-i Kavânîn , Süleymaniye Ktp., Cârullah Efendi, nr. 968, vr. 6b vd.). b) Aslında beytülmâl arazisi iken ifraz edilerek ve şartlarına uyularak sahih temlik ile mülk haline getirilen arazi. c) Öşür arazisi; buna arz-ı sadaka da denir. Öşür arazisi Yemen gibi fetih sırasında gazilere tevzi ve temlik edilen yerlerdir. d) Haraç arazisi. Bu arazi fetih sırasında gayri müslim ahaliye bırakılan yerlerdir ki Irak arazisi buna misaldir. Buradan alınan haraç vergisi de harâc-ı mukāseme ve harâc-ı muvazzaf olmak üzere ikiye ayrılır. Birincisi, arazinin hâsılatından yerin durumuna göre 1/10’dan 1/2’ye kadar alınmak üzere belirlenmiş olan vergidir. İkincisi ise arazi üzerine kesim usulü ile belirlenmiş olan muayyen miktar akçedir (AK , md. 2). Önceleri Mısır ve Şam arazisi de harâcî idi (AK , md. 2). e) “İzn-i sultânî” ile işleyenin mülkü olmak üzere ihya edilen arâzî-i mevât (Mecelle , md. 1272).
2. Arâzî-i Mîriyye. Menşei hakkında farklı görüşler ileri sürülen ve bazı yanlış sonuçlara varılan bu çeşit arazinin esası, İslâm hukukunun devlet reisine tanıdığı tercih hakkı ve beytülmâl arazisi meselesidir. Mîrî arazi rejiminin hukukî mimarı Ebüssuûd’dur. Bu çeşit arazi, “rakabesi beytülmâle ait bulunan ve tasarruf hakkı devlet tarafından mutasarrıflara ihale ve tefvîz edilen arazidir” şeklinde tarif edilebilir. Bunun aslı haraç arazisidir. Ebüssuûd’a göre mîrî arazi rejiminin ilham kaynağı, Hanefîler dışındaki İslâm hukukçularının kabul ettikleri ve Hanefîler’in haraç arazisi dedikleri Irak arazisinin müslümanlara vakfedildiği görüşüdür. Ebüssuûd’un bu konudaki görüşlerini kısmen sadeleştirerek şöyle nakletmek mümkündür: “Bir kısmı daha vardır ki ne öşriyedir ne de açıklandığı şekilde harâciyedir. Ona arz-ı memleket derler. Aslı harâciyedir. Lâkin sahiplerine temlik olunduğu takdirde ölünce mirasçılarına taksim mecburiyeti doğacak ve her birine bir cüz’î parça düşüp taksimden sonra her birinin hissesine göre haraçların tevzii ve tayini zor, hatta belki de imkânsız olacaktır. Bu sebeple arazinin rakabesi müslümanların beytülmâli için alıkonulup reâyâya âriyet yoluyla verilip onlar işletirler. Öşür adıyla harâc-ı mukāsemesini verirler. Mülkleri değildir. Bu arâzî-i mîrî demekle mâruftur. Sevâd-ı Irak’ın arazisi, bazı eimme-i dîn (diğer İslâm hukukçularını kastediyor) mezheplerinde bu kabildendir” (Kānûnnâme , Süleymaniye Ktp., Cârullah Efendi, nr. 988, vr. 10a-b ). Gerçekten de mîrî arazi ile diğer mezheplerin “müslümanlara vakıf” anlayışı arasında hemen hemen hiç fark yoktur. Her ikisinde de devlet araziyi işletmeye vermekte ve gelirini müslümanların ihtiyaçlarına sarfetmektedir.
Osmanlı Devleti’nde çift akçesi adıyla alınan vergi harâc-ı muvazzaftır. Öşür adıyla alınan vergi ise harâc-ı mukāsemedir. Ziraata elverişli olmayan yerlerden bedel-i öşür, icâre-i zemîn veya mukātaa adıyla kira bedeli mahiyetinde bir ücret alınır. Arâzî-i mîriyye şu dört gruptan oluşur: a) Fetih sırasında gayri müslim ahaliye veya gazilere bırakılmayıp beytülmâl için alıkonan araziler. b) Mâlikleri mirasçısız, vasiyetsiz ve borçsuz vefat edip de beytülmâle kalan araziler. c) Zaman aşımı ile mâliklerinin kim olduğu bilinmeyen ve beytülmâl için zaptolunduğu belli olmayan araziler. d) Fetih sırasında iktâen temlik veya beytülmâl için zaptolunduğu belli olmayan araziler (AK , md. 3, 8 vd.). Bunlara arâzî-i memleket, arz-ı taz‘îf, mezâri-i şemsiyye (Suriye’de), arâzî-i beytülmâl yahut yanlış olarak arâzî-i havz da denir. Öşrî, harâcî ve mîrî arazilere hep birden arâzî-i sultâniyye adı verilir (Ali Haydar, sy. 86, s. 4077 vd.).
Arâzî-i mîriyyeye benzemekle beraber farklı özelliklere sahip olan iki çeşit arazi daha vardır: Arâzî-i havz ve arâzî-i ukriyye . Harâcî arazi sahiplerinden haraç vergisini vermeyenler arazilerini beytülmâle teslim ederler. Devlet bu araziyi işletir ve haraç payını aldıktan sonra kalan geliri sahiplerine verir. Bu çeşit arazilere arâzî-i havz denir. Bazıları bunu yanlış olarak mîrî arazinin eş anlamlısı zannetmişlerdir (bk. Ebüssuûd Efendi, Risâle , Süleymaniye Ktp., Reşid Efendi, nr. 1152, vr. 156b -157a ). Irak bölgesinde bazı arazi sahipleri topraklarını işletemeyince bunlar devlet tarafından zaptolunmuş, haracı devlete ve gelirin 1/20 veya 1/25 gibi belli bir hissesi de arazi sahiplerine verilmek üzere çiftçilere kiralanmıştır. Arazi sahiplerine verilen hisseye ukr , bu araziye de arâzî-i ukriyye denmiştir (Serkiz, Tahşiyeli Kavânîn , I, 261-264).
3. Arâzî-i Mevkūfe. Vakıf arazi demektir. Bu da iki kısımdır. Birincisi mülk olup da mâlikleri tarafından vakfedilen arazidir ki arâzî-i mevkūfe-i sahîha adını alır. İkincisi ise devlet reisi yahut yetkili kıldığı bir makamın beytülmâle ait mîrî araziden bir kısmının gelirini, beytülmâlden istihkakı bulunan bir hayır cihetine tahsis etmesidir ki buna da arâzî-i mevkūfe-i gayr-i sahîha veya tahsisat kabilinden vakıf arazi denir. Bunun da muhtelif nevileri vardır (AK , md. 4).
4. Arâzî-i Metrûke. Kamuya terkedilmiş arazi olup iki kısımdır. Birincisi, herkesin faydalanması için terkedilmiş olan yerlerdir ki umumi yollar, sokaklarda oturulacak yerler, caddelerde boş bırakılan mahaller, yolculara mahsus olmak üzere bırakılan konak yerleri ve benzeri mahaller bu kabildendir. Bunlara arâzî-i mürfeka da denir. İkincisi belli bir köy, köyler yahut kasabaların bütün ahalisine terkedilen ve ayrılan yerlerdir ki mera, yaylak ve kışlaklar bu kabildendir. Bu ikinci çeşide daha ziyade arâzî-i mahmiyye denir (AK , md. 5, 91-120; Mecelle , md. 1271).
5. Arâzî-i Mevât. Kimsenin tasarrufunda olmayan, belli bir köye yahut kasabaya tahsis edilmeyen ve iskân mahallinin en kenar noktasına tahminen 1,5 mil uzaklıkta bulunan boş arazilerdir. Bunun mukabili olarak kendisinden herhangi bir şekilde faydalanılan araziye arâzî-i âmire denir. Arâzî-i mevât ihya edilerek mülk yahut mîrî arazi haline getirilebilirler (AK , md. 1, 103-107; Mecelle , md. 1270-1291).
Arazi Üzerindeki Tasarruf Hakkı. Mülk arazide mâlikler temlikî tasarruf dahil her çeşit tasarruf hakkına sahiptirler. Arazinin rakabesi sahip ve mâliki olan kimseye aittir. Diğer mallar gibi mirasla intikal eder; vakıf, rehin, bağışlama ve şüf‘a gibi hükümler geçerli olur. Mülkiyeti nakleden akidler, miras, ihya, iktâ ve benzeri yollarla kazanılabilir. Ancak uzun süreli de olsa mücerret zilyedlik zaman aşımıyla iktisap sebebi olamaz.
Vakıf arazilerin sahih olanlarında mülkiyeti nakleden işlemlerden hiçbiri geçerli değildir. Kamu yararı ve vakfın maslahatının bulunduğu haller bunun dışındadır. Vakıf mallar üzerinde adı geçen tasarrufların dışındakileri yapmaya mütevelli yetkilidir; ancak bu kayıtlı ve sınırlı bir yetkidir. Gayri sahih vakıf arazilerde ise tasarruf şekli mîrî arazi hükümlerine benzer. Ancak arazinin şer‘î ve örfî rüsûmatı ile beraber tasarruf hakkı da vakfedilmişse o takdirde vakıf mütevellisi tasarrufa da yetkilidir. Bu tasarruftan kasıt rakabe üzerinde tasarruf değildir; zira rakabe yine devlete aittir.
Mîrî arazi, rakabesi devlete ait arazi olduğuna göre tasarruf hakkı da devlete ait olacaktır. Ancak devletin temlikî tasarruf yetkisi de belli şartlarla kayıtlıdır. Diğer tasarruf yetkilerini ise devlet bizzat kendisi kullanıp araziyi işletebileceği gibi ahaliye süresiz kira ve benzeri bir akid ile devir (tefvîz) de edebilir. Devletin mîrî araziyi işletmek üzere onu ahaliye öşür, tasma akçesi ve benzeri adlarla bilinen kira bedeliyle vermesine tefvîz denir. Mîrî arazinin tasarruf hakkını kiralayan ahalinin bu hakkı mücerret bir haktır. Sadece yine devletin belirlediği sınırlar çerçevesinde belli mirasçılarına bedelsiz veya bedelli olarak intikal edebilir. Kiralayan kimse hayatta ise kendisi bu hakkını bedelli yahut bedelsiz olarak başkasına devredebilir ki bu devir işlemine ferâğ denir.
Arâzî-i metrûkede kimsenin tasarruf hakkı yoktur. Bu tür topraklar herkesin faydalandığı arazi olmaları bakımından devletin bunlar üzerindeki yetkisi, egemenlik hakkından doğan bir tanzim ve nezaret yetkisinden ibarettir.
Arâzî-i mevâtta da yine kimsenin tasarruf hakkı yoktur. Sadece devletin iznini almak şartıyla herkesin bu çeşit araziyi ihya etme hakkı vardır.
Arazi Hukukunun Tedvinine Dair Bazı Çalışmalar. Osmanlı hukukunun temelini İslâm hukuku oluşturmaktadır. Arazi konusunda da durum aynıdır. Osmanlılar’a gelinceye kadar İslâm devletleri bu konuda fıkıh kitapları ve “el-ahkâmü’s-sultâniyye” türünden eserlerdeki hükümleri uygulamışlardır. Ebû Yûsuf’un Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc ’ı bunun en belirgin örneğidir. Osmanlı hukukunda ise durum biraz farklıdır. Gerçi Osmanlılar’da da mülk arazi, sahih vakıf arazi, metrûk arazi ve mevât arazi konularında yine fıkıh kitapları gayri resmî kurallar hükmündedir. Mecelle (md. 1192-1291) ve arazi kanunnâmesi kısmen bu hükümleri tedvin etmiş bulunmaktadır. Osmanlı padişahlarının ülü’l-emr in tanzim yetkisine dayanarak düzenledikleri emirler, fermanlar ve kanunlar daha ziyade mîrî ve gayri sahih vakıf arazi ile ilgilidir (AK , md. 2). Bunlar üzerindeki hukukî düzenlemeleri de Tanzimat’tan önce ve sonra olmak üzere ikiye ayırmak gerekir.
Tanzimat’tan önce araziye dair olan eski kanunnâmelerin esaslarını, muhtelif tarihlerde padişaha arzedilen telhis ler üzerine sâdır olan irâde-i seniyyelere dayanarak Dîvân-ı Hümâyun defterlerine kayıt ve tescil edilen müteferrik hükümler oluşturmaktadır. Bu hükümler, şeyhülislâmlar tarafından verilen fetvaların eklenmesiyle bazı âlimler ve hukukçular tarafından “kanunnâme” adıyla meydana getirilen özel mecmualarda derlenmiştir. Bunlardan en muteber ve meşhur olanı, Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman zamanında şeyhülislâmlık yapan Ebüssuûd’a atfedilenidir. Sultan III. Ahmed devrinde kaleme alınan ve 11 Zilkade 1117 (24 Şubat 1706) tarihinde padişaha arzedilen kanunnâme-i arâzî de meşhur kanunnâmelerdendir. Ömer Lütfi Barkan muhtelif livâlara ait birçok kanunnâmeyi tapu tahsis defterlerinden çıkararak, XV ve XVI. Asırlarda Osmanlı Devletinde Ziraî Ekonominin Hukukî ve Malî Esasları adıyla neşretmiş bulunmaktadır (İstanbul 1943).
Tanzimat’tan sonra çıkarılan ve araziyi ilgilendiren hukukî düzenlemeleri ise şöyle özetleyebiliriz: “Üç sene boz ve hâlî kalan arazinin müstahakk-ı tapu olmasından asâkir-i nizâmiyyenin istisnasına dair” 10 Cemâziyelâhir 1263 (28 Mayıs 1847) tarihli tebliğ resmi; annenin arazisinde erkek ve kız evlâdın intikal hakları konusunda 14 Cemâziyelevvel 1263 tarihli tebliğ resmi; küçüklerin ana babalarından intikal eden araziyi bâliğ olduktan sonra on seneye kadar dava edebileceklerine dair Muharrem 1264 tarihli kanun fıkrası; çocuksuz vefat edenlerin arazilerinde tapu hakkının cereyanı hususunda 23 Rebîülevvel 1265 tarihli irâde-i seniyye; eski kanunnâmelerin özet halinde bir risâle şeklinde hazırlanması isteği üzerine Şeyhülislâm Ârif Hikmet Bey tarafından risâle şeklinde kaleme alınan ve Ahkâm-ı Mer’iyye ve Kānûn-i Sultânî adlarıyla meşhur olan 23 Rebîülevvel 1265 tarihli mecmûa; 11 Receb 1274 tarihli irâde-i seniyye; “vefâen ferâğ” hakkında 9 Ramazan 1274 tarihli nizamnâme; 23 Şevval 1274 tarihli arâzi kānunnâme-i hümâyunu; arazi kanunnâmesini tâdil eden muhtelif kanun maddeleri; arazinin teminat gösterilebileceği hakkında 27 Şâban 1286 ve 23 Ramazan 1286 tarihli nizamnâmeler; 17 Muharrem 1284 tarihli tevsî-i intikāl nizamnâmesi ve yine 17 Muharrem 1284 tarihli bilicâreteyn tasarruf olunan musakkafât ve müstegallât-ı vakfiyyenin tevsî-i intikāline dair kanun; 21 Şubat 1328 tarihli emvâl-i gayr-ı menkūlenin intikālâtı hakkında kānûn-ı muvakkat ve araziyi dolaylı olarak ilgilendiren muhtelif hukukî düzenlemeler (Serkiz, Tahşiyeli Kavânîn , I, 115 vd.).
Osmanlı arazi rejimi bu devletin temel direklerinden biri olmuştur. Düzenli olduğu devirlerde devlet askerî, malî ve ekonomik bakımdan güçlü olmuş, arazi rejiminin yozlaşıp bozulduğu dönemlerde ise doğrudan arazi rejimiyle ilgili olan timarlı sipahilik gibi askerî teşkilâtlarla malî ve ekonomik durum da bozulmuştur. Bilhassa XIX. yüzyıl boyunca araziye ilişkin olarak yürürlüğe konan irade, nizamnâme ve kanunnâmelerde yer alan tedbirlerin ana çizgisi, mîrî araziyi özel mülk arazi haline dönüştürme eğilimidir. 1274 (1858) tarihli arazi kanunu ile bu kanunla getirilen tedbirler mülk araziye dönüşüm eğilimini bâriz bir şekilde ortaya koymaktadır.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1991 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 3. cildinde, 342-346 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.