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AHMED HAN, Seyyid Skip to content (1817-1898)
Hindistanlı tanınmış fikir adamı ve yazar.
17 Ekim 1817’de Delhi’de doğdu. Babası Seyyid Muhammed Müttakī Han’dır. Ataları, Şah Cihan devrinde Herat’tan Hindistan’a gelip yerleşmiş ve burada çeşitli devlet hizmetlerinde görev almışlardır. Neseplerinin Hz. Hüseyin vasıtası ile Hz. Peygamber’e ulaştığı yolundaki iddiadan dolayı aile fertleri “seyyid” unvanını taşımaktadır. Ahmed Han, ilk tahsilini annesinin nezaretinde geleneklere uygun olarak tamamladı. Daha sonra Farsça, Arapça, matematik ve geometri öğrenimi gördü; şiir ve edebiyatla ilgilendi; bu arada devrin önde gelen edipleriyle yakın ilişki kurdu. 1838 yılında babası Müttakī Han’ın ölümü üzerine hayatını kazanmak için çalışmak zorunda kaldı ve Delhi Ceza Mahkemesi zabıt kâtipliğine tayin edildi. Burada hâkim olan amcası Halîlullah’ın yanında meslekî bilgisini ilerletti. Bu sırada açılan hâkimlik imtihanını kazanarak 1841’de Manipûr’a stajyer hâkim oldu. Bir yıl sonra Fetihpûr Sikri’ye ve 1846’da Delhi’ye gönderildi. Delhi’de kaldığı dokuz yıl zarfında, resmî görevi yanında bir taraftan da kitap ve risâleler yazarak büyük bir şöhrete kavuştu. 1855 yılında daha yüksek bir hâkimlik derecesi olan “sadr-ı emîn” unvanı ile Bicnor’a tayin edildi.
1857 yılında İngilizler’e karşı başlatılan ve Hint tarihine “sipahi ayaklanması” olarak geçen hareket sırasında Bicnor’da bulunan Ahmed Han, tamamen İngilizler’e bağlı kaldı. Bicnor’daki birçok kadın ve erkek İngiliz’i Meerut’a göndermek suretiyle hayatlarını kurtardı. Bu hareketi İngilizler tarafından takdirle karşılanarak kendisine “Star of India” (Hint yıldızı) nişanının Companion rütbesi verildi. Daha sonra intikam almak için mukabil harekete geçen İngiliz askerlerine karşı, bu defa mâsum halkın kurtarılmasında büyük hizmetleri oldu. Hareketten sonra kendisine, hizmetlerine karşılık olmak üzere, yerlilerden müsadere edilen ve yıllık on beş bin İngiliz lirası gelir getiren bir mülk bağışlandıysa da kabul etmedi. 1857’den sonra Murâdâbâd’da daha üst bir derece olan “sadrü’s-sadr” unvanı ile hâkimlik görevine devam etti. Burada müslümanların sosyal hayat ve eğitimle ilgili problemlerini dile getiren bazı yazı ve broşürler yayımladı. Loyal Mohammadan of India ve Esbâb-ı Beġavât-ı Hind adlı eserlerini bu sırada yazdı. İkinci eser Hindistan’da sıkıyönetim uygulandığı sırada neşredilmiş olup Hindistan halkının devlet kademelerinde temsil edilmediği yönünde birçok tenkitler ihtiva etmektedir. 1859’da eşini kaybeden Ahmed Han, aynı yıl Murâdâbâd’dan Gāzîpûr’a ve 1864 yılında Aligarh’a giderek hâkimlik görevini sürdürdü. Burada da müslümanların eğitim düzeyinin mutlaka yükseltilmesi gereği üzerinde önemle durdu.
Ahmed Han, 1869 yılında oğulları Hâmid ve Mahmud’la birlikte İngiltere’ye gitti. On yedi ay müddetle meslekî tetkiklerle birlikte İngiliz üniversite teşkilâtını da inceledi. Özellikle Kraliçe Victoria’dan ve İngiliz devlet adamlarından büyük ilgi gördü. Hindistan’a dönüşünde Tehẕîbü’l-aḫlâḳ adıyla aylık bir gazete çıkararak müslümanları Batı kültürüne ve İngiliz hükümetine ısındırmak için çaba gösterdi; din ile dünya işlerinin birbirinden ayrılması ve dinin her işe karıştırılmaması gerektiğini savundu. 24 Mayıs 1875’te, Kraliçe Victoia’nın doğum yıldönümünde, en büyük eseri sayılan Aligarh’daki Mohammadan Anglo-Oriental College’ı kurdu. 1876’da mesaisini tamamen okula vermek istediği için hâkimlik görevini bıraktı ve Aligarh’a yerleşti. 1877’de kraliyet nâibi Lord Lytton yeni kolej binasının temelini attı; 1878’de Cambridge ve Oxford örnek alınarak yüksek öğretim sınıfları açıldı. Bu kolej Ahmed Han’ın ölümünden sonra 1920 yılında üniversite haline getirildi. Hindistan’daki günümüz müslüman aydınlarının birçoğu Aligarh Koleji veya üniversitesinde yetişmiştir.
1878’den 1883’e kadar kraliyet nâibinin yasama meclisinde üye olan Ahmed Han, halkın direnişinden korkan birçok İngiliz memurun muhalefetine rağmen, bulaşıcı hastalıklara karşı mecburi aşılanma kanununu kabul ettirdi. 1886’da, ülke müslümanlarını eğitim, öğretim ve siyaset alanlarında aydınlatmak amacıyla ve her yıl toplanmak üzere, The Mohammadan Educational Conference’ı (İslâm Eğitim Konferansı) başlattı. Aynı yıl Hint aydınları tarafından kurulan All-India National Congress’e karşı çıkarak müslümanların bu harekete karışmamaları için bütün gücüyle çalıştı. 1887’deki İslâm Eğitim Konferansı’nda Millî Kongre’yi şiddetle tenkit etti. Onun kanaatine göre müslümanlar, İngiliz hükümetinin aleyhine olan Millî Kongre ile birlik oldukları takdirde İngilizler’in teveccühünü kaybedecekler ve bu kuruluşun istediği seçim tarzı getirilirse mağdur olacaklardır. Onun bu çabaları İngiliz hükümetince büyük bir memnuniyetle karşılandı ve kendisine “Sir” ve “Knight Commander of the Star of India” (Hint yıldızı nişanının şövalye kumandanı) unvanı verildi. 1889’da Edinburg Üniversitesi tarafından fahrî doktor unvanıyla taltif edildi. 27 Mart 1898 tarihinde Aligarh’da öldü.
Dinî ve Siyasî Görüşleri. İslâm’ın akılla uzlaştığını kabul eden Ahmed Han, XIX. yüzyıl Avrupa akılcılığı ve tabiat felsefesinin geniş ölçüde tesirinde kalmıştır. İnanç sistemlerini değerlendirirken “tabiata uyma” ilkesini kabul etmiş ve İslâm’ın bu ölçüye en çok uyan bir din olduğu sonucuna varmıştır. Aklı en önemli standart sayarak İslâm’ı buna göre açıklarken radikal İslâmî yorumu canlandırmak yerine, Ortaçağ İslâm filozoflarının sudûr görüşünü yoruma tâbi tutarak benimsemiş ve Allah’ı ilk sebep şeklinde ifade etmiştir. Ahmed Han, Batı akılcılığına dayanarak İslâm’ı kendi şahsî yorum ve fikirleriyle uzlaştırmaya çalışmıştır.
Ona göre kâinatta sebep-sonuç prensibi hâkimdir ve kâinat bu prensibe bağlı olarak yönetilir. Bütün varlıkların yaratıcısı, yani ilk sebebi Allah’tır. Allah, tabiat kanunlarını yaratmış ve kesinliğe bağlamıştır; bu yüzden kâinatta bu kanunlara aykırı hiçbir şey cereyan etmez. Bu anlayıştan hareket eden Ahmed Han, peygamberlerin mûcizelerini ve velîlerin kerametlerini kabul etmeyip bunlarla ilgili nasları tabiat kanunlarına uygun bir şekilde yorumlamaya çalışır. Ona göre vahiy tabii bir olaydır ve peygamberin melek vasıtasıyla değil, kendi sahip olduğu istidatla ilâhî kelâmı duyması halidir. Buna göre peygamberlik de istidada bağlı tabii bir olaydır. Nasıl ki bütün istidatlar insanın fizik yapısıyla ilgiliyse, Allah tarafından verilen nübüvvet de peygamberin fizik yapısına bağlı bir özelliktir. Bu bakımdan peygamber ana rahminde iken de peygamberdir. Nübüvvet Hz. Muhammed’le sona ermiştir. İslâm Peygamberi’nin her sözü, konusunda söylenecek en son sözdür. İşte bu özelliğinden dolayı o son peygamberdir. Kendisinden sonra bin peygamber de gelse, onun söylediklerinden başka bir şey söylemeleri mümkün değildir.
Kur’an en mükemmel prensipleri ihtiva eder ve değiştirilemez. Fakat onun bütün muhtevası dinle ilgili değildir. Kuran’da bulunan dinî mahiyetteki emirler (ahkâm âyetleri) beş yüz civarındadır. Kur’an’da dünyevî konuların zikredilmesi, onların dinin bir bölümü olduğunu göstermez. Hadisler Kur’an derecesinde mevsuk değildir. Çünkü onların çoğu sonraki nesillere aynen nakledilmemiştir. Sahâbe ve halefleri, naklettikleri hadislerde bizzat Hz. Peygamber’in kullandığı lafızları kullanmayıp kendi ifadeleriyle rivayet etmişlerdir; böylece hadis metinleri kitaplara son râvinin ifadesi ile girmiştir. Bundan dolayı, bu râviye kadar Hz. Peygamber’in ifadesinin ne derecede korunduğunu tesbit etmek çok güçtür. Râvinin, hadisi ve ifade ettiği mânanın mahiyetini anlayamaması sonucu, asıl metnin tamamen yanlış bir ifadeye bürünmesi de mümkündür. Hadis bilginleri, hadis ricâlinin güvenilir olup olmadığı hakkında tenkitler yürüttükleri halde, hadisin metni hakkında tenkitte bulunmamışlardır. Buna göre hadis akıl ve dirâyet yoluyla sabit olmadıkça kabul edilemez. Ahmed Han, Hz. Peygamber’in hadislerde beliren söz ve fikirlerine karşı saygılı olmakla beraber bu nakillerin peygamberin hayatındaki fonksiyonunu ifa edeceği görüşünde değildir. O, bu kanaatiyle hadisin otoritesini kabul etmeyen ve Kur’an’la yetinen bir telakkiyi benimsemektedir. Ona göre, İslâm âlimlerinin görüş ve kanaatleri doğru veya yanlış olabilir. Yanlış olması halinde düzeltilir ve bu durum Kur’an’a zarar getirmez. Çünkü Kur’an ıslaha muhtaç değildir. Geçmişte İslâm âlimlerinin siyasî, içtimaî, hukukî, iktisadî vb. meselelerle ilgili münakaşa ve münazaralara getirdikleri çözüm tarzları fıkıh kitaplarında toplanmış ve sonraki nesillere kanun, şeriat ve İslâm’ın kendisi imiş gibi sunulmuştur. Âlimlerin şahsî görüş ve kanaatlerinden ibaret olan bu çözüm tarzlarının mükemmel ve değişmez bir hayat nizamı olduğuna inanılmış, fıkhın her sahada yeterli olduğu görüşü yayılmış, böylece müslüman topluluklar fikrî donukluğa sürüklenmişlerdir.
Ahmed Han’a göre, dünya ile ilgili konuların temel olarak değişmeyen dine dahil edilmesi büyük bir hatadır. O, bizzat kendisinin de bu hataya düştüğünü, nitekim konuyla ilgili olarak daha önce yayımladığı Râh-ı Sünnet ve Bidʿat adlı eserinde dinî hükümleri iki gruba ayırdığını, birinci grubu akîde ve ibadetler, ikincisini de sosyal âdetler (yeme, içme ve diğer muaşeret kaideleri) olarak belirttiğini, ancak ikinci kısmı dinden saymakla hata ettiğini söyler. Bu düşünceye göre din iman, ibadet ve ahlâkî hükümlerden ibarettir (IS , VI, 294-295).
Siyasetin dinden ayrılması Ahmed Han’ın önemle üzerinde durduğu konulardan biridir. Ona göre müslümanlar hiçbir devirde vahye dayanarak siyaset yapmamışlardır. Bizzat Hz. Peygamber çeşitli konularda ashabı ile istişarede bulunmuş ve ona göre hareket etmiştir. Daha sonra da hiç kimse siyasî meselelerle ilgili hadislerin ilâhî vahyin bir kısmı olduğunu düşünmemiştir. Gerek Kur’an gerekse Peygamber, yönetim konusunda idarecilere ülkelerindeki âlimlerle istişare esasına dayalı olarak geniş bir hareket serbestliği tanımıştır.
Ahmed Han, kendi zamanında Hindistan’daki müslümanların bir kısmının yahudiler gibi dışa dönük ve şekilci olduklarını, diğerlerinin de Katolikler gibi içe yöneldiklerini ifade ederek, her iki anlayışın da müslümanların gerçek İslâm’a olan imanlarını zedelediğini ve dinî hayatlarını dejenere ettiğini ileri sürmüştür. Halka yeni şeyler telkin edilmek istendiğinde söz konusu zümrelerin karşı çıkışından yakınan ve modern ilimlerle uzlaşacak yahut onları aşacak bir kelâm ilminin geliştirilmesinin zaruri olduğuna inanan Ahmed Han, fıkıh, hadis ve tefsir ilimleriyle bunların dayandığı prensiplerin yeniden münakaşa edilmesi gerektiğini, bu bakımdan Hindistan’ın bir Luther’e ihtiyacı olduğunu iddia etmiştir. Onun bu tür cüretli fikirlerinden, Protestanlık reformuna benzer bir hareketin İslâm dünyasında da meydana getirilmesini arzu ettiği sezilmektedir. Ahmed Han bu düşüncelerini Tehẕîbü’l-aḫlâḳ ’ı çıkarmakla geliştirmeye başlamıştır. Bu gazete, müslümanlarda hâkim olan âdetlerin ve sosyal alışkanlıkların akıl ve faydacılık yönünden münakaşa edildiği bir yayın organı haline gelmiştir. Ahmed Han, siyasî görüş bakımından, çağdaşı olan Cemâleddîn-i Efgānî’nin temsil ettiği panislâmizm e karşıdır. Nitekim Hint müslümanlarını İslâm dünyasının diğer bölgelerinden, özellikle Osmanlı ülkesinden ayrı tutmuş, cihanşümul bir İslâm hilâfetine karşı çıkmıştır.
Ahmed Han, düşünce ve uygulamalarından dolayı bazı İslâm âlimlerinin tekfir e kadar varan tenkitlerine hedef olmuştur. Onun bu alışılmamış görüşlerine, özellikle Kur’an tefsiri konusundaki anlayışına ve Batı medeniyetini olduğu gibi taklit etme fikrine karşı çıkan âlimlerin başında, Diyûbend Dârülulûmu’nun kurucusu Muhammed Kāsım Nânevtevî (ö. 1881) gelir. Ahmed Han da Nânevtevî’nin ilmî gücünü, münazaradaki ihlâs ve takvâsını kabul etmiştir (Ebü’l-Hasan en-Nedvî, eṣ-Ṣırâʿ , s. 72). Cemâleddîn-i Efgānî ve Muhammed Abduh, Ahmed Han’ın İngilizler’in sömürgecilik emellerine hizmet eden bir dehrî (materyalist) olduğunu söyleyerek, yazdığı tefsirde Allah’ın kelâmını bozmaya varacak kadar fahiş hatalar yaptığını ortaya koymuşlar, ayrıca Hint müslümanları arasına ihtilâflar soktuğunu belirtmişlerdir (el-ʿUrvetü’l-vüs̱ḳā , s. 412, 417). Ahmed Han hareketinin tabii ilimler ve maddeci Batı medeniyetine hayranlık ve bağlılık esasına dayandığı, onun İslâm’ı modern hayata uydurmaya çalıştığı hususu da kendisine yöneltilen tenkitler arasında yer almaktadır (Muhammed el-Behî, s. 31-32). Batı kültür ve medeniyetinin sonuçlarını hiçbir şekilde seçime tâbi tutmadan bunların müslüman toplumlarca uygulanmasını istemesi, kurduğu müesseselerde İngiliz hocalara öncelik tanıyarak yeni neslin İngiliz kültürü ile yetiştirilmesini sağlaması ve Batı’ya gereğinden fazla değer vermesi bir başka tenkit konusudur. Yine kurduğu okullarda uygulamalı ilimler terkedilip sadece teorik ilimler, dil ve edebiyat okutulması da ayrıca eleştirilmiştir (Ebü’l-Hasan en-Nedvî, eṣ-Ṣırâʿ , s. 83-84).
Ahmed Han, XIX. yüzyılın koyu determinist tabiat felsefesinden etkilenerek, nâdiren de olsa tabiat kanunlarını aşan olayları (mûcize, keramet) kabul etmemiş, bu sebeple Kur’an’da bazı peygamberlere nisbet edilen bu tür olayları dil ve mantık kurallarına uymayan yorumlarla açıklamaya çalışmıştır (bk. KERAMET ; MÛCİZE ). Hadislerin tesbiti sırasında metin tenkidine önem verilmediği ve Hz. Peygamber’in sözleri rivayet edilirken onun kullandığı lafızların korunmasına dikkat edilmediği şeklindeki iddiası da gerçeklerden uzaktır (bk. HADİS ; SÜNNET ). Öyle anlaşılıyor ki Ahmed Han, yabancı tesirler altında kendine has bir din anlayışına sahip olmuş, İslâmiyet’i bu din anlayışına uydurmak maksadıyla bazı teoriler geliştirmiş ve benimsenmesi güç yorumlara girişmiştir. İslâmiyet’in siyasî ve hukukî problemlere çözüm bulma dinamizminden mahrum olduğunu ileri sürmesi de aynı yabancı tesirlere bağlanabilir.
Eserleri. Ahmed Han’ın yazarlığını üç devreye ayırmak mümkündür: 1. 1857 yılına kadar olan gençlik döneminde eserlerinde geleneksel üslûp ve ifade hâkimdir. Bu dönemde, dinî ve tasavvufî konularda Cilâʾü’l-ḳulûb bi-ẕikri’l-maḥbûb (1839); Câm-ı Cem (Delhi 1840); Şîa’ya reddiye olarak yazdığı Tuḥfe-i Ḥasan (1844), Kelimetü’l-ḥaḳ (1849), Râh-ı Sünnet ve Bidʿat (1850); Delhi’nin arkeolojik tarihine dair Âs̱ârü’ṣ-ṣanâdîd (Delhi 1854, 2. bs.) ve Gazzâlî’ye ait Kimyâʾü’s-saʿâde ’nin bazı bölümlerinin Urduca’ya tercümesi gibi çalışmaları vardır. 2. 1857-1869 yılları arasında, daha çok sipahi ayaklanmasının meydana getirdiği yeni şartlar çerçevesinde memleketinin genel ve siyasî durumu ile ilgili eserler yazdı. Târîḫ-i Serkeşî-yi Bicnor ’da 1857-1858 yılları arasında cereyan eden olayları ele aldı. Ayrıca Esbâb-ı Beġavât-ı Hind (1859) ve Loyal Muhammadan of India ’yı (1860-1861) yazdı (bu eserler için bk. Hafeez Malik, Political Profile of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan , s. 7-329). Onun bu döneme ait eserlerinde genellikle bir uzlaşma eğilimi görülür. Gayesi müslümanlarla İngilizler arasındaki siyasî bağları güçlendirmektir. Taḥḳīḳ-i Lafẓ-ı Naṣârâ , İncil tefsiri olan Tibyânü’l-kelâm (Tebyînü’l-kelâm ) (1862), Risâle-i Aḥkâm-ı Ṭaʿâm-ı Ehl-i Kitâb (1868) bu devrede yazılan eserlerindendir. 3. 1869’dan ölümüne kadar geçen zaman, onun düşünceleri ve eserleri itibariyle hayatının en verimli devresidir. İngiltere’de bulunduğu sırada Sir William Muir’in Life of Mohamet adlı eserine cevap olarak Ḫuṭabât-ı Aḥmediyye ’yi yazdı. Daha sonra telif etmeye başladığı ve ilk cildi 1880’de yayımlanan Tefsîrü’l-Ḳurʾân ’ı on yedinci cüze kadar yazabildi. Bu eserin İsrâ sûresine kadar olan kısmı altı cilt halinde yayımlanmıştır (1880-1895).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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A. H. al-Birūnī, Makers of Pakistan and Modern India , Lahor 1950, s. 1-60.
Cemâleddîn-i Efgānî – Muhammed Abduh, el-ʿUrvetü’l-vüs̱ḳā , Beyrut 1389/1970, s. 412-417.
Ahmed Emîn, Züʿamâʾü’l-ıṣlâḥ , Beyrut, ts. (Dârü’l-kitâbi’l-Arabî), s. 121-139.
Bayur, Hindistan Tarihi , III, 380-386, 483.
Abdülmüteâl es-Saîdî, el-Müceddidûn fi’l-İslâm , Kahire, ts. (Dârü’l-Hammâmî), s. 483-485.
Ebü’l-Hasan en-Nedvî, el-Müslimûn fi’l-Hind , Dımaşk 1381/1962, s. 66-67.
a.mlf., eṣ-Ṣırâʿ beyne’l-fikreti’l-İslâmiyye ve’l-fikreti’l-ġarbiyye fi’l-aḳṭâri’l-İslâmiyye , Küveyt 1388/1968, s. 70-90.
Haydar Bammat, İslâmiyetin Mânevî ve Kültürel Değerleri (trc. Bahadır Dülger), Ankara 1963, s. 402-404.
Muhammed el-Behî, el-Fikrü’l-İslâmî el-ḥadîs̱ , Kahire 1384/1964, s. 27, 33.
G. F. I. Graham, The Life and Work of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan , Karachi 1979, s. 1-40, 58-125.
Fazlurrahman, İslâm (trc. Mehmet Dağ – Mehmet Aydın), İstanbul 1981, s. 273-276.
Morris Dembo, Political Profile of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan [Hafeez Malik] , İslâmâbâd 1402/1982, Giriş, s. XVI-XXII; a.e. , s. 7-329.
John Obert Voll, Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World , Boulder 1982, s. 112-113.
Hüseyin G. Yurdaydın, İslâm Tarihi Dersleri , Ankara 1982, s. 325-330.
G. Allana, Eminent Muslim Freedom Fighters 1562-1947 , New Delhi 1983, s. 111-123.
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Mazheruddin Siddiqi, “Religious Thought of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan”, IS , VI (1967), s. 289-308.
Osman Keskioğlu, “Zuamâ’ul-Islâh = Islâhât Öncüleri Hakkında Görüşler”, AÜİFD , XVII (1969), s. 143-144.
Kan Kagaya, “A Comparative Study of Islamic Modernism in Indo-Pakistan, Egypt and Iran”, Orient , XIV, Tokyo 1978, s. 71-78.
Blumhardt, “Ahmed Hân”, İA , I, 182-183.
J. M. S. Baljon Jr., “Aḥmad K̲h̲ān”, EI2 (İng.) , I, 287-288.
Seyyid Abdullah, “Aḥmed Ḫân”, UDMİ , II, 116-122.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1989 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 2. cildinde, 73-75 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.