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PARA Skip to content
Sözlükte “parça, gümüş parçası” anlamındaki Farsça pâreden gelen kelime genel olarak bütün ödeme araçlarını ifade eden bir genişlik kazanmıştır. Araplar, Bizans’ın altın parası olan dinarı hem İslâmiyet öncesinde hem de sonrasında kullandılar. Dinar, Hıristiyanlık sembollerinden kademeli şekilde arındırılarak müslümanlarca bir müddet daha basıldı. İlk İslâm dinarı, para sistemini esaslı biçimde düzenleyen Emevî Halifesi Abdülmelik b. Mervân zamanında 77 (696) yılında çıkarıldı. Dinarın yanında İran’ın gümüş dirhemleri de bir süre kullanıldı. Sâsânî dirhemleri Hz. Ömer döneminde basıldı ve üzerlerindeki İslâm dışı motifler yerlerini yavaş yavaş İslâmî simge ve ibarelere bıraktı. İlk İslâm dirhemini altın ve bakır sikkede olduğu gibi Abdülmelik b. Mervân çıkardı. Fethettikleri yerlerde kullanılan altın ve gümüş sikkeleri tedavül ettirmede bir sakınca görmeyen müslümanlar, Bizans’tan aldıkları yerlerde tedavülde olan ve “fels” denilen bakır paraları kullanmadılar; onun yerine Bizans felslerine uygun yeni bakır paralar bastılar. İlk fels 638’de Dımaşk’ta darbedildi. Ancak Araplar arasında hükümranlık alâmeti sayılmadığı için felslere merkezî bir kontrol getirilmedi ve mahallî olarak basılmasına izin verildi. Dolayısıyla bunların ağırlıkları, boyutları ve üzerlerinde bulunan yazılar bazı farklılıklar göstermekteydi (bk. FELS; paranın fıkhî hükümleri için bk. NAKİT).
Osmanlı Devleti, devraldığı coğrafyada kendisinden önce hükümran olan devletlerin çıkardıkları madeni paraları (sikke) kullanmayı sürdürdü. İlk Osmanlı sikkesinin Osman Bey zamanında basıldığı konusu tartışmalıdır. Osman Bey adına basılmış olup bugüne ulaşan bir paranın sahte olduğu ileri sürülür. Genel kabul, 1326 yılında Orhan Bey adına kestirilen akçenin ilk Osmanlı parası olduğu yönündedir. Bunun 1, 5 ve 10 akçelik birimleri vardı. 1 ve 5’lik akçeler Orhan Bey, 10’luklar ise Fâtih Sultan Mehmed ve II. Bayezid devirlerinde çıkarıldı. Gümüş akçe XVII. yüzyılın sonuna kadar temel Osmanlı para birimi olma özelliğini korudu. 726’dan (1326), itibaren ilk altın paranın darbedildiği 882 (1477) yılına kadar geçen ve gümüş akçenin hâkimiyeti altında olan dönem tek maden sistemi (monometalist dönem) olarak adlandırılır. Hasene-i sultânî (sultânî) isimli bu altın paralar, Venedik dukasıyla hemen hemen aynı olan değerini XVII. yüzyılın başlarına kadar muhafaza etti. Öte yandan alışverişlerde ufaklık ihtiyacını karşılamak üzere I. Murad zamanından (1362-1389) itibaren bakır paralar basılmaktaysa da devlet hazineye yapılan ödemelerde bunları kabul etmemekteydi. İki ebatta basılan bakır paraların büyüklerinin sekizi ve küçüklerinin yirmi dördü bir gümüş akçeye eşitti.
İlk paralar Bursa ve Edirne’de darbedildi. Osmanlı Devleti’nde darphâneler iltizam sistemiyle üçer yıllığına özel kişilere ihale edilir, ihale edilmediği takdirde emaneten bir kamu görevlisi tarafından yönetilirdi. Paraların ayarını ve içlerindeki değerli maden miktarını “sâhib-i ayâr” denilen bir görevli denetlerdi. Osmanlılar, Selçuklular ve Anadolu beylikleri gibi altın ve gümüşün ülkeye girişini teşvik edip vergiden muaf tutarken sıkıntısı çekilmemesi için ihracına sınırlamalar getirip yasakladı. Savaş veya başka zaruri sebeplerden dolayı para hacminde meydana gelen daralmalar esnasında zaman zaman devlet adamlarının elindeki altın ve gümüş kap kacakla kıymetli madenler darphâneye gönderilerek paraya dönüştürülürdü. Mısır hariç taşradaki darphânelerin sikke kalıpları merkezden gönderilirdi. Tesbit edilebildiği kadarıyla Osmanlı ülkesinde doksan yerde sikke darbedilmiştir (Pere, s. 21-23).
Tahta geçen her padişah sikkeyi kendi adına bastırırdı. Akçe Fâtih Sultan Mehmed devrine (1451-1481) kadar genel itibariyle değerini korudu; fakat artan askerî giderleri karşılayabilmek için bu dönemde basılan sikkelerde gümüş miktarı bir malî tedbir olarak yaklaşık % 30 oranında azaltıldı (tağşîş). Gelişen ekonomide para arzı talebi karşılamadığı gerekçesiyle malî sıkıntıya çözüm olmak üzere uygulanan bu tedbir halkın ve yeniçerilerin tepkisini çekti. Fâtih dönemini takip eden yaklaşık yüzyıllık bir süre içerisinde gümüş akçe nisbeten değerini korudu. Ancak savaşların maliye üzerine ağır bir yük bindirmesi yüzünden 1585 veya 1586’da yapılan ve o döneme kadar gerçekleştirilen en büyük tağşîş olan bir işlemle akçenin gümüş oranı % 44 azaltıldı. Esasen bu tarih para için yeni ve istikrarsız bir dönemin başlangıcına işaret eder. Sık sık tağşîşe başvuran devlet, her yeni sikke çıkardığında eskilerini piyasadan tam olarak çekemediği ve piyasalarda parasal anlamda ciddi bir karmaşa hüküm sürdüğü için sikkenin ayarını sağlayabilmek adına 1600, 1618, 1624 ve 1640 yıllarında bazı düzenlenmeler yaptı.
İlk altın paranın basılmasıyla birlikte çift maden sistemine (bimetalizm) geçildi. Yeni fetihler neticesinde altın ve gümüş standardına dayalı olan Osmanlı para sistemi de giderek karmaşık bir durum aldı. Zira Osmanlı sikkeleri Anadolu beylikleri, Bizans ve diğer yabancı devlet paralarıyla birlikte piyasadaydı. Bunun yanında Mısır’da pâre/para, Eflak-Boğdan, Erdel ve Macaristan civarında penz ve Kırım’da Kefevî akçe gibi mahallî paralar tedavül etmekteydi. Devlet, İstanbul’a yakın Orta ve Batı Anadolu ile Balkanlar’da akçe ve sultânîye dayalı olan kendi para sistemini sürdürürken özellikle uzak piyasalarda Venedik dukası, Ceneviz altını, İspanyol reali, Hollanda esedîsi, Polonya zolotası, Avusturya taleri ve İran şâhîsi gibi yabancı paraların dolaşımını serbest bıraktı. Hatta yabancı devlet parası olmalarına rağmen Venedik ve Ceneviz altınları Osmanlı darphânelerinde de basıldı. Yine Bağdat Darphânesi’nde bu bölgede tedavül etmek üzere İran şâhîsinin vezin ve değerinde olan, dirhem veya şâhî de denilen gümüş sikke 1730’lara kadar darbedildi. İstanbul piyasalarından uzak olup yabancı sikkelerin etkisinde kalan Tunus, Cezayir ve Trablus piyasalarında “nasrî” denilen ve padişah adına kesilen kare şeklindeki mahallî sikkeler hâkimdi. Hazine, bütün bu farklı paraların rayiç fiyatlarına dair düzenlediği listeleri zaman zaman taşraya gönderirdi.
XVI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren kuruş denilen yabancı iri gümüş sikkeler Osmanlı piyasalarına girmeye başladı. XVII. yüzyılın ortalarında ise para arzı talebi karşılayamayınca Avrupalı tüccarlar yabancı mağşûş sikkeleri Osmanlı piyasalarına taşıdı. Tüccarlar için çok kârlı olan bu iş akçenin hükümran olmadığı coğrafyada var olan para karmaşasını daha da arttırdı. Bu şekilde yabancı paraların âdeta Osmanlı piyasalarını istilâ etmesi yüzünden ülkenin çeşitli yerlerinde faaliyet gösteren darphâneler ve buna paralel olarak gümüş madenleri birer birer kapanmaya başladı; neticede IV. Mehmed’in saltanatı esnasında (1648-1687) darphâne sayısı altıya kadar düştü. Kapanan madenlerin yeniden açılamaması zamanla gümüş kıtlığına sebep oldu. Hem değersizliği hem yabancı para yoğunluğu sebebiyle akçe piyasalardan iyice çekildi.
XVII. yüzyılda sınırlı miktarda bakır sikke basıldı; ancak savaşları finanse edebilmek, hazinenin açıklarını kapatabilmek, altın ve gümüşün karşılamadığı para arzını ikmal etmek amacıyla 1688’de bol miktarda mankur/mangır veya pul denilen bakır paralar çıkarıldı. Bunların maden ve nominal değerleri arasında fark mevcut olup her mangır bir akçe değerindeydi. Hazine bakır sikkeyi ödeme aracı olarak kabul etmekteyse de altın ve gümüşte olduğu gibi isteyenin darphâneye külçe götürüp bakır sikke bastırması yasaktı. Nominal değeriyle maden değeri arasındaki fark ve kolay kâr imkânı kısa sürede kalpazanların dikkatini çektiği için dışarıdan getirilen gemiler dolusu kalp bakır sikke piyasaya sürüldü. Bu durumun piyasalarda oluşturduğu istikrarsızlık ve enflasyondan dolayı Kasım 1691’de mangırların basımı ve tedavülü yasaklandı.
XVII. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru yapılan bir düzenlemeyle para, akçenin yerine Osmanlı para birimi haline geldi. 1 para = 3 akçe, 1 kuruş = 40 para ölçüsü getirilen bu sistemdeki ilk gümüş kuruş 1690 yılında basıldı. Karmaşık olan para sistemini bir düzene koymak ve para birliğini sağlamak isteyen II. Mustafa, 1696’da tedavüldeki farklı ayarlı altın ve gümüş paraları toplatarak yeniden ve tek ayar üzere bastırmak amacıyla İzmir, Edirne ve Erzurum’da yeni darphâneler açtırdı; yabancı sikkeleri yerli paraya dönüştürerek hazineye ek finansman sağladı. 1703 yılında gümüş kuruşun gram ağırlığı yeniden düzenlenip ufaklıkları darbedildi. İstanbul’da ve yakın bölgelerde kuruş sisteminin hâkim olmasına rağmen İstanbul’dan, Balkanlar’ın bir kısmı ve Anadolu’dan uzaklaştıkça hâkimiyet yabancı paralara geçmekteydi. Nitekim XVIII. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına kadar taşranın pek çok yerinde kuruş esas para görevini hâlâ üstlenememişti. Bu arada XVIII. yüzyılın başından 1760’ların sonuna kadar yapılan tağşîşler neticesinde kuruşun gümüş içeriği yaklaşık % 40 oranında azaltıldı. 1768’de başlayıp altı yıl süren Osmanlı-Rus savaşı tağşîşi daha da hızlandırdı ve kuruş 1808 yılına kadar değerinin yaklaşık % 50’sini kaybetti. I. Abdülhamid, savaşın sebep olduğu malî buhrana çare bulabilmek için 1789’da reel değerinin % 20 üzerinde nominal değere sahip olan, ikilik diye adlandırılan sikkeleri, III. Selim de 50 ve 100 paralık mağşûş sikkeleri piyasaya sürdü. Bu mağşûş sikkeler her ne kadar kısa vadede hazineye sıcak para sağlayıp yararlı gibi göründüyse de uzun vadede piyasalar için olumsuz ve enflasyonist bir etki yaptı.
Altının ülke dışına kaçışının engellenememesi zaman zaman devleti mevcut paraları tağşîş etmek zorunda bıraktı. Nitekim 1703’te tuğralı, 1713’te zincirli/zencirekli, 1716’da fındık ve 1729’da zer-i mahbûb isimli altın paralar basılıp piyasaya sürüldü. Bu sikkelerden aynı isim altında Mısır’da basılanlarının içerdikleri altın miktarı ise daha düşüktü. XIX. yüzyıl, özellikle ülkede gerçekleştirilen reformlardan, ulaşım ve finans sistemlerinde meydana gelen gelişmelerden dolayı Osmanlı piyasalarının dünya ekonomisine iyice entegre olduğu ve dış ticaret hacminin öncesiyle kıyas kabul etmez derecede büyüdüğü bir dönemdir. Bu aynı zamanda paraya olan ihtiyaç ve talebin de artması anlamına gelmekteydi. XVIII. yüzyılda iyice ivme kazanmış olan tağşîş uygulaması II. Mahmud devrinde imparatorluk tarihinin en üst düzeyine ulaştı ve bu dönemde Osmanlı maliyesindeki en büyük tağşîş gerçekleşti. Bu süre içerisinde gümüş kuruş değerinin % 85’ini kaybetti; altın sikkeler de bu âkıbetten kurtulamadı. İlk defa bu devirde altın içerikleri farklı olan rûmî, adlî ve hayriye adlı sikkeler basıldı. İlk Osmanlı parası olan gümüş akçe ise en son 1834’te çıkarıldı (Pere, s. 12).
Yerli ve yabancı pek çok değişik isim ve ayarlı paranın kullanılması bunlar arasında fiyat farkları meydana getirmiş, bu da para alıp satmayı ve bunlar arasındaki farktan yararlanmayı meslek haline getiren bir aracı grubu (sarraflar) ortaya çıkarmıştı. İstanbul’un yanı sıra Anadolu ve Rumeli’nin önemli ve ticaretin canlı olduğu şehirlerinde faaliyet gösteren sarrafların devletle ve devlet adamlarıyla sıkı ilişkileri vardı. Özellikle Tanzimat döneminden 1880’lere, yani Avrupa bankalarının Osmanlı Devleti’nde şubeler açıp doğrudan faaliyete geçmelerine kadar Galata bankerleri altın çağlarını yaşadılar. Zira Avrupa’daki sermaye çevrelerinden edindikleri düşük faizli ve uzun vadeli kredileri devlete kısa vadeli ve yüksek faizli avanslara dönüştürerek büyük kazançlar elde ettiler.
XIX. yüzyılın başlarında Osmanlı para sistemindeki karmaşık yapı hâlâ devam etmekteydi. II. Mahmud döneminde (1808-1839) piyasada otuz altı çeşit gümüş paranın olduğunu belirtmek bu karmaşıklığın boyutları hakkında bir fikir verebilir. Tanzimat’la birlikte para sistemine bir düzen verilmesi amacıyla bazı girişimler yapıldı. 1844’te çıkarılan Tashîh-i Ayar Fermanı ile sikke konusu düzenlendi ve 1 altın lira = 100 gümüş kuruş esası benimsenerek tekrar çift metal sistemine geçildi. Osmanlı sikkeleri bu fermanla 100 ve 50 kuruşluk altın, 20, 10 ve 5 kuruşluk gümüş sikkeler olarak tesbit edildi. Öncelikle 22 ayar altından 100 ve ardından 17 Haziran 1844’te 50 kuruşluk altın sikkeler hazırlandı. Fermanda yer almamasına rağmen daha sonra 25 kuruşlukla 2,5 ve 5 liralık altın paralar piyasaya sürüldü. Böylece piyasada tedavül eden altın para çeşidi beşe çıktı. Öte yandan bu düzenlemeyle beraber darphâne de tüccar malı altın ve gümüşü belli bir ücret karşılığında işlemeyi kararlaştırdı. Karşılığında altından % 1 ve gümüşten 2,7 işleme ücreti alacaktı. Düzenlemenin yapıldığı ilk sene darphânede 12 milyon liralık altın ve 4 milyon liralık gümüş sikke basıldı. Devlet bu düzenlemeden sonra malî bir tedbir olarak zaman zaman uyguladığı para tağşîşine son verdi.
Bu sistemde altın sikke ile 20 kuruşluk gümüş sikke (mecidiye) temel para olma özelliğini sürdürdü ve devletin sonuna kadar tağşîş edilmeksizin değerini korudu. 1881’den itibaren gümüş paranın yavaş yavaş piyasadan kaybolması neticesinde altın Osmanlı parası için tek standart konumunu kazandı. Ancak devlet yine de 1916’ya kadar gümüşü ödeme aracı olarak kabul etti. Böylece esas itibariyle altının ve yan ödeme aracı olarak gümüş paranın benimsenmesiyle birlikte “topal altın standardı” diye adlandırılan bir ara sistem ortaya çıktı. Altın ve gümüş paraların yanında küçük alışverişlerde kullanılmak amacıyla bakır ve 20 Haziran 1910’da kabul edilen bir kanunla 40, 20, 10 ve 5 paralık nikel sikkeler basıldı. 8 Nisan 1916’da çıkarılan Tevhîd-i Meskûkât Kānûn-ı Muvakkati ile değer ölçüsü olarak altın ve para birimi olarak kuruş esası benimsenip altına dayalı tek maden sistemine geçildi. Bununla birlikte altının yanında gümüş ve nikel paraların tedavülüne de izin verildi. Ancak nikel parayla en fazla 50 ve gümüşle de 300 kuruşa kadar olan borçlar ödenebilirdi. XIX. yüzyılın özellikle ikinci yarısından sonra artan ticarî ilişkilere paralel olarak İngiliz sterlini ve Fransız frangı da Osmanlı piyasalarında sıkça görülmeye başlanmıştı. Bu geçici kanunla birlikte yabancı paralara sekiz ay tedavül süresi tanındı ve bu müddetin sonunda tedavülleri yasaklandı.
Osmanlı maliyesinin Tanzimat’tan sonra zaruret yüzünden üç defa temsilî para uygulamasına geçtiği görülmektedir. 1768-1774 Osmanlı-Rus Savaşı’nın ardından hazinenin sıkıntılarına çözüm bulabilmek amacıyla 1775’ten itibaren maliye tarafından uygulamaya konulan ve zaman zaman kaldırılan esham sistemi biraz daha geliştirilerek 1840’ta, sekiz yıl tedavül süresi olmak üzere karşılıksız olarak ilk Osmanlı kâğıt parası olan kāime piyasaya sürüldü. Başlangıçta % 12,5 olan kāime faizleri önce % 10’a, ardından 6’ya indirildi ve nihayet sıfırlandı. Gün geçtikçe miktarının fazlalaşması ve değerinin azalması neticesinde pek çok sosyal soruna sebep olan bu ilk kāimeler İngiltere’den alınan bir borçla Eylül 1862’den itibaren piyasadan çekildi. 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Savaşı’nı finanse edebilmek için başvurulan ikinci kāime tecrübesi birincisinden daha sancılı oldu. Para basma (emisyon) imtiyazını 1863’te kurulan Bank-i Osmânî-i Şâhâne’ye veren devlet, yaklaşan savaşı finanse edebilmek amacıyla her türlü riski göze alarak bankanın izni olmaksızın hassas bazı bölgelerin dışında bütün ülkede tedavül etmek üzere kāime çıkardı; buna karşılık bankaya basılan paranın % 1’i oranında komisyon ödendi. Bu uygulamada kāime çok değer kaybetti ve 1 altın, kāime olarak 13 liraya kadar yükseldi. Hazinenin elinde savaşın ardından kāimeyi piyasadan çekecek imkânlar bulunmadığı için çıkarılan toplam 16 milyon liralık kāime 1878’den sonra tedrîcî şekilde piyasadan çekildi. Son kāime, I. Dünya Savaşı’nı finanse etmek amacıyla Almanya’dan alınan borç paralar ve hazine bonoları karşılık tutularak Düyûn-ı Umûmiyye İdaresi’nin denetiminde 1915’te çıkarıldı. Yedi tertipte basılan toplam 161.018.663 liralık kāimenin bir kısmı Osmanlı döneminde piyasadan çekildiyse de 153.748.563 liralık kısmı Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’ne intikal etti. Cumhuriyet’in ilk kâğıt paralarının 5 Aralık 1927’de piyasaya sürülmesi üzerine Osmanlı kāimeleri altı ay içinde piyasadan çekildi (ayrıca bk. KĀİME; MESKÛKÂT; SİKKE).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA İsmâil Galib, Takvîm-i Meskûkât-ı Osmâniyye, İstanbul 1307; Hasan Ferîd, Nakd ve İ‘tibâr-ı Mâlî , İstanbul 1333-34, I-II; Halil Ethem [Eldem], Meskûkât-ı Osmâniyye , İstanbul 1334; Uzunçarşılı, Kapukulu Ocakları, I, 464-476; Ekrem Kolerkılıç, Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Para, Ankara 1958; Halil Sahillioğlu, Kuruluştan XVII. Asrın Sonlarına Kadar Osmanlı Para Tarihi Üzerinde Bir Deneme (doktora tezi, 1958), İÜ İktisat Fak.; a.mlf., Bir Asırlık Osmanlı Para Tarihi: 1640-1740 (doçentlik tezi, 1965), İÜ İktisat Fak.; Nuri Pere, Osmanlılarda Mâdenî Paralar, İstanbul 1968; İbrahim Artuk, “Osmanlı Beyliğinin Kurucusu Osman Gazi’ye Ait Sikke”, Türkiye’nin Sosyal ve Ekonomik Tarihi: 1071-1920 (ed. Osman Okyar – Halil İnalcık), Ankara 1980, s. 27-33; Mübahat S. Kütükoğlu, “Osmanlı İktisadî Yapısı”, Osmanlı Devleti ve Medeniyeti Tarihi (haz. Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu), İstanbul 1994, I, 553-560; Ahmet Tabakoğlu, Türk İktisat Tarihi, İstanbul 1994, s. 261-274; Şevket Pamuk, Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Paranın Tarihi, İstanbul 1999; a.mlf., “Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Para: 1326-1914”, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi: 1600-1914 (trc. Ayşe Berktay v.dğr.), İstanbul 2004, II, 1055-1093; Ali Akyıldız, Para Pul Oldu: Osmanlı’da Kâğıt Para, Maliye ve Toplum, İstanbul 2003; H. Gerber, “The Monetary System of the Ottoman Empire”, JESHO, XXV/3 (1982), s. 308-324.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2007 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 34. cildinde, 163-166 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.