Trauma Exposure and Hopelessness as Predictors of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Depression among War Veterans in South-East Nigeria.

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 6 Sayı: 2, 147 – 155, 27.06.2024

Sunday Ejikeme Nwoye

https://doi.org/10.35365/ctjpp.24.2.05

Öz

Bu çalışma, Güneydoğu Nijerya’daki savaş gazileri arasında Travma Sonrası Stres Bozukluğu (TSSB) ve depresyonun habercileri olarak travmaya maruz kalma ve umutsuzluğu araştırmaktadır. Araştırma tasarımı, farklı zamanlarda savaş alanında yer almış 470 emekli askeri gaziden oluşan bir örneklem üzerinde geriye dönük değerlendirme olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Örneklem, dört standart araca yanıt veren 240 erkek ve 230 kadından oluşmuştur. Çalışmanın örneklemi, Taro Yamen’in çokterimli ya da heterojen popülasyona yönelik istatistiksel yöntemi kullanılarak belirlenmiştir. Sonuçlar, travmaya maruz kalmanın Güneydoğu Nijerya’daki askeri gaziler arasında TSSB’yi önemli ölçüde etkilediğini göstermektedir (F (1,468) =38.88; P<0.01). Ancak, travma maruziyeti Güneydoğu Nijerya’daki gaziler arasında depresyon gelişimini önemli ölçüde etkilememiştir (F (1,468) =0.302; P=0.583). Umutsuzluğun, TSSB’nin istatistiksel olarak önemli bir habercisi olduğu saptanmıştır. (F (1,468) =10.87; P<0.01). Ancak, gaziler arasında depresyon bozukluğu gelişimini R=0,023 ve R2=0,001 ile istatistiksel olarak öngörememiştir (F (1,468) =0,239; P=0,625). Bulgular genel olarak literatürdeki mevcut deneysel kanıtların çoğunu desteklemektedir. Çalışmanın sonuçlarına göre, askeri teşkilat ve Nijerya hükümetinin her eyalette askeri gaziler için rehabilitasyon sağlık merkezleri kurmak üzere stratejik bir sağlık girişimi başlatmaları oldukça önemlidir. Bu merkezlerde hem halihazırda görev yapmakta olan askerler hem de emekli gaziler rutin psikolojik değerlendirme ve tedaviye erişebilecek, böylece savaş alanında ve sonrasında iyi bir fiziksel ve mental sağlık durumunda olmaları sağlanacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Ek Hastalik, Depresyon, Travmaya Maruz Kalma, Umutsuzluk, Nijerya, Travma Sonrasi Stres Bozuklugu, Guneydogu, Gaziler

Kaynakça

• Abel, J., Anongo, F.S., Dami, B.E., Ogbole, A. J., Abel, A., and Abel, J., Anongo, F.S., Dami, B.E., Ogbole, A. J., Abel, A., and Dagona, Z.K. (2018). Combat exposure and peritraumatic factors predicting PTSD among military personnel fighting insurgency in Nigeria. Journal of Anxiety & Depression, 1(2), 108
• Abramson, LY, Metalsky, GI and Alloy, LB. (1989). Hopelessness depression: a theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, APA PsycNet. 96, 358-372., Doi:10.1037/0033-295X96.2.358.
• Ameh, A., Kazeem, O. (2014). Posttraumatic stress disorder among Nigerian military personnel-findings from s post-deployment survey. Psychology, Medicine. Retrieved from www.semanticscholar.org, 6/7/2023
• American Psychiatric Association, DSM-5 Task Force. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder DSM-5™ (5th ed.). United State, American Psychiatric Publishing Inc. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
• Asare-Doku, W., Donnir, GM., Ae-Ngibise., Peprah, J., Awuviry-Newton and Acquah. (2021). Psychiatric disorders among the military in West Africa: A systematic Narrative review. Behavioral Science, Basel; 11(10), 138. Doi: 3390/bs11100138.
• Chidubem, O. (2020). 8 Civil wars in Africa that changed the face of the continent. Retrieved online from https://vocalafrica.com/civil-wars-in-africa/ , 24/10/2023
• Clausen AN, Clarke E, Phillips RD, Haswell C (2020). VA Mid-Atlantic MIRECC Workgroup, Morey RA. Combat exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder, and head injuries differentially relate to alterations in cortical thickness in veterans. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official publication of American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 45(3), 491-498.
• Dagona, S.S. (2022). Assessment of combat-induced posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among officers of the Nigerian army involved in the fight against Boko-Haram insurgency in North-Eastern Nigeria. International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Current Educational Research (IJMCER), Volume 4, Issue 2. Pp.20-28.
• Dami, B.E., Abel, J., Zubairu, D. Karick, Dakwak, H. (2018). Combat exposure and PTSD among military combatants in North East Nigeria. Journal of Psychology and Clinical Psychiatry. 9(4), 400-404. DOI: 10.15406/jpcpy.2018.09.00558.
• Dunkley, F. (2023). Exposure to traumatic materials 3 stages support. FD Consultants, London Retrieved online from https://www.fdconsultants.net, 26/5/2023
• Farmer, C.M., Vaughan, C.A., Garnett, J. and Weinick, R.M. (2015). Pre-deployment stress, mental health and help-seeking Behaviors among marines. Rand Health Quarterly, 5(1), 23.
• Francoise B.S (2013). Medecins Sans Frontiers. The practical guide to humanitarian law. Rowman and Littlefield Publications, U.S.A.
• Ginzburg, K. Solomon, Z, Dekel, R, and Neira, Y. (2003). Battlefield functioning and chronic PTSD: Association with perceived self-efficacy and causal attribution. Personality and Individual Differences Psychology, 34(3), 463-476.
• Goldmann E. and Galea, S. (2014). Mental health consequences of disasters. Annual Review of Public Health, 35, 169-83. Doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182435.
• Gonzalez, OI, Novaco, RW, Reger MA. And Gahm, GA. (2016). Anger Intensification with Combat-Related PTSD and Depression Comorbidity. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. American Psychological Association, 8(1), 9–16 1942-9681 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tra0000042
• Gray, MJ, Pumphrey, JE and Lombardo, TW. (2003). the relationship between dispositional pessimistic style versus trauma-specific attributions and PTSD symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17(3), 289-303.
• Hankin, CS, Spiro, A., Miller, DR., Kazis, L. (1999). Mental disorders and mental health treatment among US Department of Veterans Affairs outpatient: the veterans’ Health Study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(12), 1924-30.doi:10.1176/ajp.15612.1924.
• Hoge, CW, Terhakopian, A. Castro, C.A., Messer, S.C., and Engel, C.C. (2007). Association of posttraumatic stress disorder with somatic symptoms, health visits, and absenteeism among Iraq war veterans. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 150-153. doi:10.1176/ajp:2007.164.1150.
• Howit, D. and Cramer, D. (2011). Introduction methods in psychology. Edinburgh, United Kingdom, Pearson Education Limited, Third edition.
• Ibrahim SU, Akindele MO, Useh U (2023). Prevalence and Correlates of Post-traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD) Among the Military in A Low-income Country. Journal of Health Research., 37(2), 62-68. DOI. https://doi.org/10.56808/2586-940X.1015
• Ifeagwazi C.M., Abiama E. Chukwuorji, JC. (2012). Self-reported mental health status of a sample of Nigeria-Biafra war veterans. International Journal of Research in Arts and Social Sciences, 4, 176-189
• Keane, T. M., Caddell, J. M., & Taylor, K. L. (1988). Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Three studies in reliability and validity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(1), 85–90. doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.56.1.85
• Kokun, O., Agayev N., Pischko, I. and Stasiuk, V. (2020). Characteristic impacts of combat stressors on posttraumatic stress disorder in Ukrainian military personnel who participated in the armed conflict in Eastern Ukraine. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 20, 3, 315-326.
• Leshem, S. Keha, E, and Kalanthrof (2023). Post-trauma stress in war veterans and secondly traumatic stress among parents of war veterans five years after the 2014 Israel-Gaza military conflict. European Journal of Psychotraumatology 14(2).2235983 Doi:10.1080/20008066.2023.2235983
• Liu, R. T., Kleiman, E. M., Nestor, B. A., & Cheek, S. M. (2015). The Hopelessness Theory of Depression: A Quarter Century in Review. Clinical psychology: a publication of the Division of Clinical Psychology of the American Psychological Association, 22(4), 345–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12125
• Lord H.G (1973). Ex Post Facto Studies as a Research Method. Special Report No. 7320, Syracuse City School District, N.Y.
• Mclean, C.P., Levy, H.C., Miller, M.L. Tolin, D.F. (2022). Exposure therapy for PTSD in military population: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, volume 90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdix.2022.102607.
• McNally, R.J. (2012). Psychiatric disorder and suicide in the military, then and now. Journal of Anxiety Disorder, 26(7), 776-778. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.06.008.
• Morey, R.A. (2020). Combat exposure, post-traumatic stress disorder, and head injuries differently relate to alterations in cortical thickness in military veterans. Neuropsychopharmacology; Official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 45(3), 491-498. doi.org/10.1038/s41386-019-0539-9
• Morina, N., Schnyder, U., Klaghofer, R. Muller, J. and Martin-Soelch, C. (2018). Trauma exposure and the mediating role of posttraumatic stress on somatic symptoms in civilian war victims. BMC Psychiatry, 18, 92. doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1680-4
• Muhie, S., Gautam, A., Yang, R., Misganaw, B., Daigle, B. J., Jr, Mellon, S. H., Flory, J. D., Abu-Amara, D., Lee, I., Wang, K., Rampersaud, R., PTSD Systems Biology Consortium, Hood, L., Yehuda, R., Marmar, C. R., Wolkowitz, O. M., Ressler, K. J., Doyle, F. J., 3rd, Hammamieh, R., & Jett, M. (2023). Molecular signatures of post-traumatic stress disorder in war-zone-exposed veteran and active-duty soldiers. Cell Reports Medicine, 4(5), 101045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2023.101045
• Murthy, R., and Lhshminarayana, R. (2006). Mental health consequences of war: a brief review of research findings. World Psychiatry, Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 5(1) 25-30.
• Okenyi, S. (2015). Need for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) counseling policy in Nigeria. International Journal of Research in Education and Psychology (IJREP), 1, 13-22
• Pietrzak, R. H., Johnson, D. C., Goldstein, M. B., Malley, J. C., and Southwick, S. M. (2009). Perceived stigma and barriers to mental healthcare utilization among OEF/OIF veterans. Psychiatric Services (Washington DC), 60(8), 1118-1122.
• Raab, P. A., Mackintosh, M. A., Gros, D. F., & Morland, L. A. (2013). Influence of depression on state and trait anger in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 37(4), 673– 679.
• Rapmund, V. and Moore, C. (2000). Women’s stories of depression: a constructive approach. South-African Journal of Psychology, 30(2), 20-30.
• Rawal, N., Karki, R., Shrestha, D., and Pathak, N. (2018). Factors associated with posttraumatic stress disorder and depression among Nepalese combatants during armed insurgency. Journal of Psychiatrists Association of Nepal, 6(1), 24. Doi: 10.3126/jpan.v6i1.21768
• Roy, H., Rohaly, T., Jeter, A., Villarreal, J., Dalangin, B., Enders, L., and Boykin, G. (2022). Understanding Posttraumatic stress disorder in military populations for designing research protocols. Retrieved online from https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/trecms/pdf/AD1164023.pdf , 8/6/2023
• Scher, C.D., and Resick, P.A. (2005). Hopelessness as a risk factor for post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms among interpersonal violence survivors. Cognitive behavioral theory, 34(2), 99-107.
• Schnurr, PP., Vielhauer, M. Weathers, F and Findler, M. (1995). The brief trauma questionnaire (BTQ) {Measurement Instrument}. Retrieved online from https://www.ptsd.va.gov, 8/9/2023
• Shor, J. (2021). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Biafra War Survivors. Faculty of the Chicago School of Professional Psychology ProQuest Dissertation and Theses. Retrieved online from https://www.proquest.com/docview, 6/7/2023
• Smith, M.A., Robinson, L., and Segal, J. (2023). PTSD in military veterans. HelpGuide.org Retrieved online from https://www.helpguide.org/articles/ptsd-trauma/ptsd-in-military-veterans.html, 11/9/2023
• Stevelink, SA, Jenkins, S., Sundin, J., and Fear, NT. (2015). The prevalence of mental health disorders in ex-military personnel with physical impairment. A systematic review. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 72(4), 243-251. doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2014-102207
• Undiyaundeye, F., Agbam, I.A. Post-traumatic stress disorder among military personnel in Nigeria: A Social Approach. Scholars Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, 10(9), 402-406
• Wolfe, KL. Nakonezny, PA., Owen, VJ. Rial, KV. Moorehead, AP, Kennard, BD., and Emsile, GJ. (2019). Hopelessness as a predictor of suicide ideation in depression male and female adolescent youth. Suicide & life-threatening Behavior, 49(1), 258-263.
• Young, Y., Korinek, K., Zimmer, Z., and Toan T.K. (2021). Assessing exposure to war-related traumatic events in older Vietnamese war survivors. Conflict and Health, 15, 14 doi.org/10.1186/s13031-021-00343-y.

Trauma Exposure and Hopelessness as Predictors of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Depression among War Veterans in South-East Nigeria.

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 6 Sayı: 2, 147 – 155, 27.06.2024

Sunday Ejikeme Nwoye

https://doi.org/10.35365/ctjpp.24.2.05

Öz

This study investigates trauma exposure and hopelessness as predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression among war veterans in South-Eastern Nigeria. The research design employed was an ex post facto purposely for a sample of 470 retired military veterans who were involved in the battlefield at different times. The sample consisted of 240 males and 230 females who responded to four standardized instruments. The sample for the study was determined through Taro Yamen’s statistical method for a multinomial or heterogeneous population. Results show that exposure to trauma significantly predicts PTSD among military veterans in Southeast Nigeria (F (1,468) =38.88; P<0.01). However, trauma exposure did not significantly predict the development of depression disorder among veterans in Southeast Nigeria (F (1,468) =0.302; P=0.583). Hopelessness was found to be a statistically significant predictor of PTSD (F (1,468) =10.87; P<0.01). However, it did not significantly predict the development of depression disorder among the veterans F (1,468) =0.239; P=0.625) with R=0.023 and R2=0.001. The findings generally support most of the extant empirical pieces of evidence available in the literature. Based on the outcome of the study, it is essentially reasonably important for the military organization and the Nigerian government should put in place a strategic healthcare initiative to build military veterans’ rehabilitation health centers in each State. In these centers, both serving and retired veterans will be accessing routine psychological assessment, and treatment to ensure that are in a good state of health and well-being during and after engagement from the battlefield.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Co-morbidity, Depression, Exposure to Trauma, Hopelessness, Nigeria, Stress Disorder, Post-traumatic, Southeast, Veterans

Etik Beyan

The participants who took part in the study were contacted in person during the military exercises and their consent was obtained before the researcher gave out the questionnaire to them. The respondents were briefed on the purpose of the study and the issues of management of their information for confidentiality were guaranteed.

Destekleyen Kurum

Girne American University, Kyrenia, Mersin 10, Turkey.

Teşekkür

My heartfelt Appreciation goes to the Co-ordinator of the Graduate School, Lale Guvenli for her assistance during the period of the study and also my co-author for his supervisory role.

Kaynakça

• Abel, J., Anongo, F.S., Dami, B.E., Ogbole, A. J., Abel, A., and Abel, J., Anongo, F.S., Dami, B.E., Ogbole, A. J., Abel, A., and Dagona, Z.K. (2018). Combat exposure and peritraumatic factors predicting PTSD among military personnel fighting insurgency in Nigeria. Journal of Anxiety & Depression, 1(2), 108
• Abramson, LY, Metalsky, GI and Alloy, LB. (1989). Hopelessness depression: a theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, APA PsycNet. 96, 358-372., Doi:10.1037/0033-295X96.2.358.
• Ameh, A., Kazeem, O. (2014). Posttraumatic stress disorder among Nigerian military personnel-findings from s post-deployment survey. Psychology, Medicine. Retrieved from www.semanticscholar.org, 6/7/2023
• American Psychiatric Association, DSM-5 Task Force. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder DSM-5™ (5th ed.). United State, American Psychiatric Publishing Inc. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
• Asare-Doku, W., Donnir, GM., Ae-Ngibise., Peprah, J., Awuviry-Newton and Acquah. (2021). Psychiatric disorders among the military in West Africa: A systematic Narrative review. Behavioral Science, Basel; 11(10), 138. Doi: 3390/bs11100138.
• Chidubem, O. (2020). 8 Civil wars in Africa that changed the face of the continent. Retrieved online from https://vocalafrica.com/civil-wars-in-africa/ , 24/10/2023
• Clausen AN, Clarke E, Phillips RD, Haswell C (2020). VA Mid-Atlantic MIRECC Workgroup, Morey RA. Combat exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder, and head injuries differentially relate to alterations in cortical thickness in veterans. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official publication of American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 45(3), 491-498.
• Dagona, S.S. (2022). Assessment of combat-induced posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among officers of the Nigerian army involved in the fight against Boko-Haram insurgency in North-Eastern Nigeria. International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Current Educational Research (IJMCER), Volume 4, Issue 2. Pp.20-28.
• Dami, B.E., Abel, J., Zubairu, D. Karick, Dakwak, H. (2018). Combat exposure and PTSD among military combatants in North East Nigeria. Journal of Psychology and Clinical Psychiatry. 9(4), 400-404. DOI: 10.15406/jpcpy.2018.09.00558.
• Dunkley, F. (2023). Exposure to traumatic materials 3 stages support. FD Consultants, London Retrieved online from https://www.fdconsultants.net, 26/5/2023
• Farmer, C.M., Vaughan, C.A., Garnett, J. and Weinick, R.M. (2015). Pre-deployment stress, mental health and help-seeking Behaviors among marines. Rand Health Quarterly, 5(1), 23.
• Francoise B.S (2013). Medecins Sans Frontiers. The practical guide to humanitarian law. Rowman and Littlefield Publications, U.S.A.
• Ginzburg, K. Solomon, Z, Dekel, R, and Neira, Y. (2003). Battlefield functioning and chronic PTSD: Association with perceived self-efficacy and causal attribution. Personality and Individual Differences Psychology, 34(3), 463-476.
• Goldmann E. and Galea, S. (2014). Mental health consequences of disasters. Annual Review of Public Health, 35, 169-83. Doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182435.
• Gonzalez, OI, Novaco, RW, Reger MA. And Gahm, GA. (2016). Anger Intensification with Combat-Related PTSD and Depression Comorbidity. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. American Psychological Association, 8(1), 9–16 1942-9681 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tra0000042
• Gray, MJ, Pumphrey, JE and Lombardo, TW. (2003). the relationship between dispositional pessimistic style versus trauma-specific attributions and PTSD symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17(3), 289-303.
• Hankin, CS, Spiro, A., Miller, DR., Kazis, L. (1999). Mental disorders and mental health treatment among US Department of Veterans Affairs outpatient: the veterans’ Health Study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(12), 1924-30.doi:10.1176/ajp.15612.1924.
• Hoge, CW, Terhakopian, A. Castro, C.A., Messer, S.C., and Engel, C.C. (2007). Association of posttraumatic stress disorder with somatic symptoms, health visits, and absenteeism among Iraq war veterans. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 150-153. doi:10.1176/ajp:2007.164.1150.
• Howit, D. and Cramer, D. (2011). Introduction methods in psychology. Edinburgh, United Kingdom, Pearson Education Limited, Third edition.
• Ibrahim SU, Akindele MO, Useh U (2023). Prevalence and Correlates of Post-traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD) Among the Military in A Low-income Country. Journal of Health Research., 37(2), 62-68. DOI. https://doi.org/10.56808/2586-940X.1015
• Ifeagwazi C.M., Abiama E. Chukwuorji, JC. (2012). Self-reported mental health status of a sample of Nigeria-Biafra war veterans. International Journal of Research in Arts and Social Sciences, 4, 176-189
• Keane, T. M., Caddell, J. M., & Taylor, K. L. (1988). Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Three studies in reliability and validity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(1), 85–90. doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.56.1.85
• Kokun, O., Agayev N., Pischko, I. and Stasiuk, V. (2020). Characteristic impacts of combat stressors on posttraumatic stress disorder in Ukrainian military personnel who participated in the armed conflict in Eastern Ukraine. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 20, 3, 315-326.
• Leshem, S. Keha, E, and Kalanthrof (2023). Post-trauma stress in war veterans and secondly traumatic stress among parents of war veterans five years after the 2014 Israel-Gaza military conflict. European Journal of Psychotraumatology 14(2).2235983 Doi:10.1080/20008066.2023.2235983
• Liu, R. T., Kleiman, E. M., Nestor, B. A., & Cheek, S. M. (2015). The Hopelessness Theory of Depression: A Quarter Century in Review. Clinical psychology: a publication of the Division of Clinical Psychology of the American Psychological Association, 22(4), 345–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12125
• Lord H.G (1973). Ex Post Facto Studies as a Research Method. Special Report No. 7320, Syracuse City School District, N.Y.
• Mclean, C.P., Levy, H.C., Miller, M.L. Tolin, D.F. (2022). Exposure therapy for PTSD in military population: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, volume 90, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdix.2022.102607.
• McNally, R.J. (2012). Psychiatric disorder and suicide in the military, then and now. Journal of Anxiety Disorder, 26(7), 776-778. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.06.008.
• Morey, R.A. (2020). Combat exposure, post-traumatic stress disorder, and head injuries differently relate to alterations in cortical thickness in military veterans. Neuropsychopharmacology; Official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 45(3), 491-498. doi.org/10.1038/s41386-019-0539-9
• Morina, N., Schnyder, U., Klaghofer, R. Muller, J. and Martin-Soelch, C. (2018). Trauma exposure and the mediating role of posttraumatic stress on somatic symptoms in civilian war victims. BMC Psychiatry, 18, 92. doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1680-4
• Muhie, S., Gautam, A., Yang, R., Misganaw, B., Daigle, B. J., Jr, Mellon, S. H., Flory, J. D., Abu-Amara, D., Lee, I., Wang, K., Rampersaud, R., PTSD Systems Biology Consortium, Hood, L., Yehuda, R., Marmar, C. R., Wolkowitz, O. M., Ressler, K. J., Doyle, F. J., 3rd, Hammamieh, R., & Jett, M. (2023). Molecular signatures of post-traumatic stress disorder in war-zone-exposed veteran and active-duty soldiers. Cell Reports Medicine, 4(5), 101045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2023.101045
• Murthy, R., and Lhshminarayana, R. (2006). Mental health consequences of war: a brief review of research findings. World Psychiatry, Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 5(1) 25-30.
• Okenyi, S. (2015). Need for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) counseling policy in Nigeria. International Journal of Research in Education and Psychology (IJREP), 1, 13-22
• Pietrzak, R. H., Johnson, D. C., Goldstein, M. B., Malley, J. C., and Southwick, S. M. (2009). Perceived stigma and barriers to mental healthcare utilization among OEF/OIF veterans. Psychiatric Services (Washington DC), 60(8), 1118-1122.
• Raab, P. A., Mackintosh, M. A., Gros, D. F., & Morland, L. A. (2013). Influence of depression on state and trait anger in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 37(4), 673– 679.
• Rapmund, V. and Moore, C. (2000). Women’s stories of depression: a constructive approach. South-African Journal of Psychology, 30(2), 20-30.
• Rawal, N., Karki, R., Shrestha, D., and Pathak, N. (2018). Factors associated with posttraumatic stress disorder and depression among Nepalese combatants during armed insurgency. Journal of Psychiatrists Association of Nepal, 6(1), 24. Doi: 10.3126/jpan.v6i1.21768
• Roy, H., Rohaly, T., Jeter, A., Villarreal, J., Dalangin, B., Enders, L., and Boykin, G. (2022). Understanding Posttraumatic stress disorder in military populations for designing research protocols. Retrieved online from https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/trecms/pdf/AD1164023.pdf , 8/6/2023
• Scher, C.D., and Resick, P.A. (2005). Hopelessness as a risk factor for post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms among interpersonal violence survivors. Cognitive behavioral theory, 34(2), 99-107.
• Schnurr, PP., Vielhauer, M. Weathers, F and Findler, M. (1995). The brief trauma questionnaire (BTQ) {Measurement Instrument}. Retrieved online from https://www.ptsd.va.gov, 8/9/2023
• Shor, J. (2021). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Biafra War Survivors. Faculty of the Chicago School of Professional Psychology ProQuest Dissertation and Theses. Retrieved online from https://www.proquest.com/docview, 6/7/2023
• Smith, M.A., Robinson, L., and Segal, J. (2023). PTSD in military veterans. HelpGuide.org Retrieved online from https://www.helpguide.org/articles/ptsd-trauma/ptsd-in-military-veterans.html, 11/9/2023
• Stevelink, SA, Jenkins, S., Sundin, J., and Fear, NT. (2015). The prevalence of mental health disorders in ex-military personnel with physical impairment. A systematic review. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 72(4), 243-251. doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2014-102207
• Undiyaundeye, F., Agbam, I.A. Post-traumatic stress disorder among military personnel in Nigeria: A Social Approach. Scholars Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, 10(9), 402-406
• Wolfe, KL. Nakonezny, PA., Owen, VJ. Rial, KV. Moorehead, AP, Kennard, BD., and Emsile, GJ. (2019). Hopelessness as a predictor of suicide ideation in depression male and female adolescent youth. Suicide & life-threatening Behavior, 49(1), 258-263.
• Young, Y., Korinek, K., Zimmer, Z., and Toan T.K. (2021). Assessing exposure to war-related traumatic events in older Vietnamese war survivors. Conflict and Health, 15, 14 doi.org/10.1186/s13031-021-00343-y.

Toplam 46 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Kaynak Göster

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