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KASIR Skip to content Hükümdarların kullanımına ayrılmış saray, saraya bağlı veya müstakil yapı.
Türk İslâm mimarisinde yönetici tabakanın azametini yansıtan kasırlar sanat ve mimarlık tarihi içerisinde önemli yer tutar. Kasır denilen yapılar bazan köşk olarak da adlandırılmıştır. Osmanlı devrinde aynı yapıların köşk veya kasır olarak anılması bu duruma işaret etmektedir. Esasında köşk, kasır (Ar. kasr ), saray ve hatta kale (iç kale) arasında hükümdar ya da beylerin meskenleri olmaları açısından fazla fark yoktur. Bu yapıların fonksiyonlarıyla ilgili özellikler bazı dönemlerde daha fazla ön plana çıkmış, bazı devirlerde ise bilhassa köşk ve kasırlar arasında mimari hususiyetler bakımından büyük farklar söz konusu olmamıştır.
Kasırlar bazı durumlarda yerleşme alanı dışında, zaman zaman da şehrin içinde hükümdar ve beylerin yaşadığı yapılar olarak algılanmaktadır. Bu sebeple Avrupa’da görülen şatolar, Orta Asya’da hükümdar ve beylerin avlulu-surlu meskenleri veya bazı kaleler, Türkiye’de özellikle hisar olarak anılan yapılar kasır kavramı içerisinde mütalaa edilebilir. Bununla birlikte Selçuklu ve bilhassa Osmanlı devrinde saraya bağlı olan veya şehrin yakınında bulunan hükümdar/padişah ve yöneticilerin kullandığı yapılar da köşk, kasır, kasr-ı hümâyun olarak adlandırılmıştır.
Bilhassa ağaçlık alanlar içerisinde veya etrafı boş arazilerde bahçeler içinde münferit olarak inşa edilen evlere, bir saray yapısının ya da büyük bir meskenin çevre duvarı içerisinde herhangi bir avlunun bir tarafında yer alan, ana binadan ayrı olarak inşa edilmiş sanat bakımından zengin görünüşlü binalara köşk denilmektedir. Nâdiren de saray binasının bir bölümü olan odalar veya kuleler, bahçe içinde yer alan çardak, kameriye gibi bölümler köşk olarak anılmaktadır (bk. KÖŞK ).
Erken dönem İslâm mimarisinde kasır olarak adlandırılan dikkate değer örnekler bulunmaktadır. Emevî ve Abbâsî devirlerinde birçok saray ve kasır yapılmıştır. Bunların bazıları mütevazi yapılar olup sözü edilmeye değer ve kalıntıları günümüze gelebilmiş olanların da sayısı pek fazla değildir. Bu yapıların bir kısmı saray olarak anılmakla birlikte aslında hepsinin birbirine yakın özellikler sergilediği gözden kaçmamaktadır. Bu türden en önemli eserler arasında Kasrü’l-hayri’l-garbî (109/727), Kasrü’l-hayri’ş-şarkī (110/728), Kusayru Amre (tah. 712-715), Hırbetü’l-mefcer (740-750), Hırbetü’l-Minye, Cebeliseys, Müşettâ (126/743-44), Kasrü’l-Ühaydır, el-Cevsaku’l-Hâkānî, Belküvârâ (854-859) ve Kasrü’l-âşık (878-882) zikredilebilir.
Bu yapıların çoğu halifeler tarafından kendileri için yaptırılmış olmalıdır. Binaların ekserisi belirli zamanlarda kullanılan, kamuya ait işlerin görüleceği birimleri az olan eserlerdir. İçlerinde yer alan camiler ön planda olmamakla beraber bazan münferit yapılar olarak ele alınmıştır. Yapılarda ana birim genellikle bir kare veya dikdörtgen şeklindedir. Dışarıdan duvarlar, köşe kuleleri ve payanda kuleleriyle birlikte bir kale görünümündedirler. İç mekânlar esas itibariyle bir avlu etrafında yer alır. Küçük avlulu kısımlar bazan genel plan şemasında kendi içlerinde düzenlenmiş mekânlar olan “beyt”leri ihtiva eder. Ancak Müşettâ ve Ühaydır saraylarında olduğu gibi küçük birkaç bölümü bulunan değişik tipte binalar da vardır. Bütün kasır ve saraylarda hükümdar ve yöneticinin misafir, devlet adamı ve elçileri kabul ettiği taht veya kabul salonu, divan yahut eyvan olarak anılan kısımlar bulunur. İki katlı yapılarda kabul salonu üst katta yer alır (Kasrü’l-hayri’l-garbî ve Hırbetü’l-mefcer’de olduğu gibi).
Kasır ve saraylarda hamamlar da ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Fakat birçok mekânın ne için kullanıldığı günümüzde pek anlaşılamamaktadır. Bütün bu yapılar bilhassa tezyinatları bakımından ünlüdür. Abbâsîler’den sonra gerek Fâtımîler’de (el-Kasrü’l-kebîrü’ş-şarkī, el-Kasrü’l-kebîrü’l-garbî), gerek Eyyûbîler’de ve bu arada Endülüs Emevîleri’nde (Medînetüzzehrâ gibi) birtakım kasır veya sarayların yapıldığı bilinmektedir. Ayrıca erken dönem İslâm mimarisinin ortaya çıktığı topraklarda, Türk hânedanları tarafından kurulan devletlerde ve daha sonraları kasır yapımı XX. yüzyıla kadar devam etmiştir. Bu yapıların en son örneklerinden biri Suûdî veya Râşidî devirlerine denk düşen (XIX. yüzyıl) Riyad’daki Kasr Masmek’tir.
Türkler’in İslâmiyet’e girmesiyle birlikte başlayan Türk mimarisinin yeni döneminde saraylarla birlikte kasırlar da inşa edilmiştir. Ancak bu saray ve kasırların dayandığı mimari gelenek İslâmiyet’ten önceki Türk (bilhassa Uygur), Orta Asya ve eski İran mimarisidir. Bu arada Ön Asya sanatları ve mimari geleneklerinin etkileri de bulunmakla birlikte plan, mimari öğeler ve süsleme şekilleri esas itibariyle İslâmiyet’ten önceki Türk mimarisinin gelişimi sonucunda ortaya çıkmıştır. İslâmiyet’ten sonraki Asya Türk sanatında saray mimarisini Karahanlılar’la başlatmak gerekir. Başlangıçta şehir dışındaki bir yazlık saray olan Tirmiz (Termez) Sarayı (XI-XII. yüzyıl), ortadaki dört eyvanlı avlusu ve süslemeleriyle dikkati çeken bir yapı olup bir kasır olarak da kabul edilebilir.
Doğu Afganistan’ın Büst şehri yakınlarında bulunan Leşker-i Bâzâr sarayları Gazneli dönemine ait en önemli yapılardandır. Genellikle Büyük Saray (Güney Sarayı) ve Küçük Saray (Orta Saray) denilen iki binasından söz edilen saray kompleksi içinde bahçelerde yer alan dört eyvanlı plan esasına göre kurulmuş köşklerin bulunduğundan da söz edilmektedir. Gazne’de yer alan Sultan III. Mesud’a ait dört eyvanlı avlulu saray da dikkate değer bir diğer örnektir.
Kaynaklarda Büyük Selçuklular’ın önemli şehirlerindeki saray ve köşklerine dair bilgiler bulunmaktadır. Bunların çoğunun Selçuklu hükümdarlarına, bazılarının da emîrlere ait olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Hemedan’daki Köşk-i Bâğ ve Hemedan Köşkü, Köşk-i Mes‘ûdî, Mâmur Köşkü, Eski ve Yeni Köşk en meşhur olanlarıdır. Öte yandan Nîşâbur ve İsfahan gibi şehirlerde zengin Selçuklu saray ve köşklerinden de bahsedilmektedir. Merv’de, hakkında arkeolojik çalışmalar neticesinde bilgi edinilebilen ve saray (belki köşk) olarak nitelendirilen, dört eyvanlı avlu etrafında düzenlenmiş mekânlardan oluşan bir yapı vardır. Bununla birlikte eski Merv’de Sultankale çevresinde yer alan birtakım kalıntılar da genellikle mesken veya köşk olarak anılmaktadır.
Türk mimarisinin Asya kesiminde Selçuklular’dan sonra bilhassa Timurlu dönemi saray ve köşkleri bakımından ünlüdür. Özellikle Şehrisebz’deki Aksaray ve Semerkant’taki geniş bahçeler içerisinde yer alan köşkler çok tanınmıştır. Bu yapılardan, Türk hükümdarı Bâbür ve Timur’a elçi olarak giden Clavijo’nun eserlerinde yazdıkları dolayısıyla haberdar olunmaktadır. Etrafı duvarlarla çevrili fıskıyeli havuzların yer aldığı bahçelerde dört ana yöne işaret eder şekilde yerleştirilmiş muhteşem köşklerden en ünlüsü Çihilsütun olarak adlandırılan ve Bâğımeydan’da bulunan köşktür. Dört taçkapısı olan, taş sütunlu iki katlı bir cepheye sahip, köşelerinde kulelerin yer aldığı kare şeklindeki bu yapı muhteşem bir eserdir.
Hindistan ve Afganistan’daki Bâbürlü Türk hânedanı döneminde birçok şehirde, özellikle Fetihpûr Sikri, Agra, Ecmîr ve Delhi’de saraylar ve onların bünyesi içinde köşkler vardır. Ecmîr’deki Ekber’in sarayı (1570-1572), Fetihpûr Sikri Sarayı (tah. 1570-1580), Cihangîrî Mahal Sarayı (tah. 1570) en ünlü örneklerdir. Ayrıca Delhi’de Kırmızı Hisar (1638-1647) olarak adlandırılan ve bir çeşit kasır sayılabilecek olan yapı da zikredilebilir.
Anadolu Türk mimarisinin erken devrinde sözü edilebilecek ilk köşkler ve saraylar arasında Kayseri yakınındaki Erkilet Hızır İlyas Köşkü (1241) ve Diyarbakır iç kalesinde meydana çıkarılan Artuklu Sarayı kesme taştan yapılmış örneklerdir. Konya iç kalesindeki yanlış olarak Alâeddin Köşkü olarak adlandırılan, gerçekte II. Kılıcarslan tarafından inşa ettirilen köşk ise Uygur köşklerini akla getirmektedir. Bu köşkten pek az bir kalıntı günümüze kadar gelebilmiştir. Eski gravür ve fotoğraflarından anlaşıldığına göre tuğla konsollar üzerine oturtulmuş köşk kare planlı bir mekândan ibaretti. Yapıda yer alan ve şimdi müzede bulunan figürlü alçı ve çini süsleme parçaları dikkat çekmektedir. Selçuklu döneminin diğer önemli köşkleri arasında Haydar Bey Köşkü, kasra dönüştürülmüş Aspendos Roma Tiyatrosu sahnesi binası ile Alanya yakınlarındaki Alara Kasrı (Hamamlı Kasır) zikredilebilir. Kayseri yakınlarındaki Alâeddin Keykubad tarafından inşa ettirilen ve bir yazlık saray olduğu belirtilen Keykubâdiye Sarayı (1224-1226) esas itibariyle üç köşkten meydana gelmektedir. Bu arada köşk veya kasır olarak anılmamakla birlikte benzeri bazı özellikleri vurgulaması bakımından Beyşehir gölü kıyısındaki Kubâdâbâd Sarayı’nı da (1236) anmak gerekir.
Osmanlı döneminde köşk ve kasır tabirleri, imparatorluğun varlığını sürdürdüğü uzun dönem içerisinde zaman zaman anlam değişikliğine uğramıştır. Bu devirde genel olarak köşk yüksek tabakadan birinin bahçesinde yer alan yapıdır. Bu anlamda padişah veya padişah ailesine ait olan köşkler de daha ziyade saray bölümü içerisinde bulunur. Öte yandan çeşitli dinî ve resmî binalarda hükümdarın dinlenmesine ayrılmış yerlere de köşk deniliyordu (bk. KASR-ı HÜMÂYUN ). Bir kısım köşkler ise spor meydanlarının kenarında yapılıyordu. Ayrıca yalı veya konakların bahçelerinde de köşkler bulunurdu. Osmanlı devrinde kasır kelimesi daha ziyade köşkten büyük yapılar için kullanılmıştır. Ancak dönemin yazarlarının eserlerinde her iki türe de zaman zaman köşk ya da kasır denilmiştir.
Osman Gazi zamanında yaptırılan Bursa Sarayı’nın ayrıntıları hakkında fazla bilgi yoktur. Ancak bu yapı, Topkapı Sarayı’nda olduğu gibi muhtelif devirlerde eklenen binalarla büyütüldüğüne göre burada köşklerin de bulunacağı düşünülebilir. Osmanlı döneminin en önemli mimari eserlerinden biri olan Edirne Sarayı’nda çeşitli köşk ve kasırlar bulunmaktaydı. Bilhassa İftâriye Köşkü (1663), Kum Kasrı (1667), Bülbül Köşkü (1671), Aynalı Köşk (XVII. yüzyılın ikinci yarısı), Cihannümâ Kasrı (1451) bunların en meşhurlarıydı. Cihannümâ Kasrı’ndan yalnız burç kısmının bazı bölümleri günümüze ulaşmıştır. Kum Kasrı ise sarayın ikinci avlusuna bakan ve yine ilk şekli Fâtih Sultan Mehmed devrine ait olan önemli bir yapı olup IV. Mehmed zamanında ihya edilmiştir. Eser yerden yükseltilmiş bir zemin üzerinde, üstü tek çatı ile örtülü dört oda, iki divanhâne ve bir hamamdan meydana gelmişti. Bir kaide üzerinde yer alan Bülbül Köşkü de iki taraftan çıkılan revaklara sahip ve içeride biri büyük olmak üzere iki odası bulunan bir yapıydı. Aynalı Köşk de esas itibariyle biri divanhâne olan iki odadan ibarettir.
Osmanlı saraylarının en meşhuru olan ve Fâtih Sultan Mehmed tarafından kurulup yüzyıllar boyunca ilâvelerle genişletilen Topkapı Sarayı içerisinde de çeşitli köşk ve kasırlar vardır. Sarayın ilk önemli yapısı 1472 tarihli Çinili Köşk’tür. Plan şeması açısından Asya Türk mimarisinin etkilerinin sezildiği binada, ortadaki büyük salona açılan dört eyvan ve köşelerde de birer kubbeli oda mevcuttur. Topkapı Sarayı’nın diğer köşkleri arasında, XVII. yüzyılda Revan ve Bağdat seferlerinin hâtırasına inşa edilen Revan ve Bağdat köşkleri yer almaktadır. 1635 tarihli Revan Köşkü bir kaide teşkil eden duvar üzerine oturtulmuş, sekiz köşeli ve üç eyvanlı bir yapıdır. Dördüncü avluda yer alan Bağdat Köşkü (1639), son önemli kubbeli köşk olup etrafında mermer sütunlu bir revakın dolandığı, dört çıkıntısı olan bir sekizgen şeklindedir. Topkapı Sarayı’ndaki diğer köşkler arasında III. Murad Köşkü (1578), İncili Köşk (1591), Yalı Köşkü (sur dışında, 1592), İftâriye Köşkü (köşk denilmekteyse de sadece açık bir kameriyeden ibaretti; 1640) ve Sepetçiler Kasrı’nın (dış bahçede, bugün deniz kenarında, 1643) adları sayılabilir. Bu arada sarayda son devir mimari ve süsleme üslûplarını yansıtan bir örnek olarak Sultan Abdülmecid zamanında inşa edilen Mecidiye Kasrı da zikredilebilir. Osmanlı döneminin diğer önemli sarayları olan Dolmabahçe Sarayı, Yıldız Sarayı ve Çırağan Sarayı’nda da çeşitli köşk-kasırlar yer alır.
Öte yandan İstanbul, Edirne, Bursa başta olmak üzere Osmanlı topraklarının çeşitli yerlerinde münferit olarak inşa edilmiş köşk ve kasırlar da mevcuttu. Bunlar arasında, ilk yapısı I. Ahmed devrine ait olan Aynalıkavak Sarayı (en önemli mekânları arz odası ve divanhânedir), Ihlamur Kasrı (ilk şekli bağ evi olan yapı Abdülmecid döneminde eskisinin yerine yapılan av köşkü, dinlenme yeri ve biniş kasrı olarak kullanılan Merâsim Köşkü ve Maiyet Köşkü’nden ibarettir; 1849-1855), Küçüksu Kasrı (Sultan Abdülmecid tarafından 1856-1857 yıllarında yaptırılmıştır), Şâle Köşkü (iki ayrı birimden meydana gelen XIX. yüzyıl sivil mimarlığının önemli örneklerindendir), Maslak kasırları (Kasr-ı Hümâyun, Mâbeyn-i Hümâyun ve limonluğu, Çadır Köşkü ve Paşalar dairesinden ibaret olup ilk yapılaşma II. Mahmud zamanında başlamıştır) kayda değer eserlerdir. Osmanlı köşk ve kasırları arasında, bazı mesire yerlerinde padişahın günü birliğine gidip halkın eğlencelerini seyrettiği kasırlar da vardır ki içlerinde uzun süre ikamet edilmeyen bu kasırlara biniş kasrı denilmektedir. Meselâ Göksu Kasrı bir biniş kasrıdır.
Bu yapılardan başka devlet adamlarına veya halktan önemli kişilere ait pek çok köşk ve kasırdan söz edilebilir. Siyavuş Paşa Köşkü (XVI. yüzyıl), Dâvud Paşa Sarayı köşkleri (1596 ve XVIII. yüzyıl), Tersane Sarayı’nda Has Oda Kasrı (XVII. yüzyıl), Edirne Köprülü Mehmed Paşa Konağı’nda yazlık köşk, Edirne Dolaplıbahçe Köşkü (1661), Edirne Ahmed Paşa Kasrı (1667), Edirne Demirtaş Kasrı, Fenerbahçe’de Fener Köşkü, Üsküdar Afganîler Tekkesi Köşkü, Beşiktaş Sarayı Çinili Köşk (1679-1680), Kurşunlumahzen Köşkü (1716), Büyük Bend Kasrı (1717), Florya Köşkü, Kasr-ı Nişâd (1723), Bebek Kasrı (1725-1726), İstinye Bahçe Köşkü, Neşetâbâd Selâmlık Köşkü, Şevkiye Köşkü (XVIII. yüzyılın sonu), Bebek Nisbetiye Kasrı, Kâğıthane Çadır Köşkü (1809-1815), Heybeliada Hünkâr Köşkü, Alemdağ Köşkü, Levent Köşkü, Kalender Köşkü, Fikirtepe Kurbağalıdere köşkleri, Hünkâr İskelesi Kasrı ve Beylerbeyi Sarayı gibi çeşitli köşk ve kasırlar önemli örneklerdir. Ancak bunlardan bazıları günümüzde mevcut değildir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2001 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 24. cildinde, 555-558 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.