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AKÇE Skip to content Osmanlılar’ın ilk gümüş para birimi ve ilk sikkesi.
Osmanlılar tarafından başlangıçta “gümüş sikke”, XV. yüzyıldan itibaren de genel anlamda “para” karşılığı olarak kullanılan akçe “beyaz, parlak, temiz” mânalarına gelen ak kökünden türemiş olmalıdır. “Ak akçe kara gün içindir” atasözü de şayet bir rastlantı değilse bu adlandırmanın renkten ileri geldiğini göstermektedir. Osmanlılar’ın akçe dedikleri para birimlerini Batılı kaynaklar asper /aspre kelimesi ile ifade etmektedirler. Orhan Bey zamanında, hıristiyan devletlerden Rum Pontus ve Rodos ile Türk-İslâm beyliklerinden Kandalor’da (Alâiye) aspro darbediliyordu. Altın Orda Devleti’nde ve Don nehri ağzında bir Ceneviz kolonisi olan Tana’da ise para yerine ticarette sommo /sum adı verilen 220 aspro ağırlık ve değerinde gümüş çubuklar kullanılıyordu. Akçe’nin “beyaz” mânasına gelen aspro dan alınmış olduğu iddiası varsa da bu iddianın tartışma konusu yapılmasının bir faydası yoktur; çünkü devletlerin tanınmış paraları benimsemeleri olagelen bir hadisedir. Dirhem de aslında bir İran parasıydı ve İranlılar onu Yunanlılar’ın drahmi sinden almıştı; dinar ise bir Bizans parasıydı. Gros veya Groschen’den türetilen gurus (kuruş) da “iri gümüş para” anlamına geliyordu. Lira , tartı birimi olan livre ile alâkalıdır. Tabii bu arada aspronun moda olabilecek ve örnek seçilmesini haklı gösterecek bir durumunun olduğunu da belirtmek ve ortaya koymak gerekmektedir.
İlk Osmanlı Gümüş Sikkeleri. Osmanlılar’da ilk sikkenin hangi tarihte kestirildiği kesin olarak bilinmemektedir. Günümüze intikal eden ilk sikkeler Orhan Gazi’ye aittir; ancak son zamanlarda Osman Bey’in olduğu öne sürülen bir gümüş sikkeden de söz edilmektedir (İbrahim Artuk, s. 27-31). XVI. yüzyıl tarihçilerinden Hadîdî’nin “Buyurdu akçeye sikke kazalar / Ki Osman bin Ertuğrul yazalar” beyti bu iddiayı doğrular mahiyettedir. Orhan Bey’e ait akçeleri iki tipte toplamak mümkündür. Bunlardan tarihsiz ve üzerindeki yazılar değişik geometrik motiflerden müteşekkil bir çerçeve içine alınmış olanlar, İlhanlı paralarına benzemektedir. Üzerlerinde “es-sultânü’l-a‘zam” unvanı bulunan bu sikkelerden birinde, Orhan Bey’in çağdaşı olmayan Halife Müstansır’ın adı yer almaktadır. Çerçevesiz olanlar daha sadedir ve üzerlerinde yalnız Orhan Bey’in adı bulunmaktadır. Bu sikkelerden birinin üzerinde 727 (1326-27) tarihi görülmektedir.
Bakır para (pul, fels, mankur/mangır) I. Murad zamanında, sultânî denilen altın para ise daha sonra Fâtih Sultan Mehmed zamanında 1478’de darbedilmeye başlanmıştır. İslâm geleneğinde gümüş sikkelere dirhem , altından olanlara dinar veya miskal denirdi. Bu iki sikkenin adları, ağırlıklarındaki tartı birimlerinden ileri geliyordu. Gümüş para birimi şer‘î dirhem (2,97 gr.), dinar veya miskal denilen altın para ise miskal ağırlığında idi (4,25 gr.). Bunların kırat cinsinden karşılıkları da 14 ve 20 kırattır. İlk Osmanlı gümüş para birimleri bu şer‘î dirhem ağırlığından çok farklıdır ve belki küçük sikkeler, yarısı veya dörtte biri şeklinde dirhemin bir kesriyle ifade edilemediği için, bu ismin yerine akçe tercih edilmiştir. Türkçe olarak düzenlenen belgelerde gümüş para biriminden daima akçe diye söz edilmekte, dirhem tabiri hukukî belgelerde, özellikle Arapça belgelerde geçmektedir. Ancak bundan şer‘î dirhem anlamı çıkarılmaması için, “günün geçer parasıyla şu kadar gümüş dirhem” mânasına gelen “dirhemen fıddıyyen râicen fi’l-vakt” ifadesi kullanılırdı. XV. yüzyıla ve XVI. yüzyılın başlarına ait, çoğu Arapça olarak düzenlenmiş hüccet leri ihtiva eden Bursa Şer‘iyye Mahkemesi sicillerinde, özellikle ilk yirmi sicilde bunların pek çok örneğini bulmak mümkündür.
Akçenin Ağırlığı. Osman ve Orhan beylere ait akçelerin tartısını veren yazılı bir belge yoktur. Tarihçiler bu akçeleri zamanlarında kullanılan tartı birimleriyle vermede güçlük çekmişlerdir. Zira akçelerin tedavüle çıkarıldığı sıralarda kullanılan tartı birimleri farklıydı. Bunlar, Gāzân Han’ın ülkesi içindeki tartı ve ölçüleri birleştirme projesi çerçevesinde kullanılmasını yaygınlaştırdığı 24 kıratlık miskallerdir. Kırat veya çekirdek, dört buğday ağırlığında idi ve bir buğday da 48 miligramdı. Gāzân Han, dirhemi yarım miskal olarak tanımlamıştı; sonraları dirhem 16 kırat yani miskalin 2/3’ü olarak kabul edilmiştir. Orhan Bey teklik, ikilik ve beşlik olmak üzere üç tür sikke tedavüle çıkarmıştır. İkilik olanı, Gāzân Han’ın dirhem tarifine uymaktadır. Bunun yarısı durumundaki teklik akçe ise miskalin dörtte biri ağırlığındadır. Fakat ikilik ve beşlik akçelerin örneklerinin çok nâdir olması, bunların darbına devam edilmediği anlamına gelebilir. Nitekim Orhan Bey’den sonra yalnız teklik akçe darbedilmiştir. Fâtih’in 1470’te onluk “Muhammed Hânî” (Buna “akçe-i büzürg” ve “gümüş-i sultâniyye” adı da verilmiştir) darbına kadar akçenin gümüşten katları veya küsuratı basılmamıştır. Teklik akçe her hacimdeki alışveriş ve ödemelerde kullanılıyordu. Daha yüksek bir değer taşıyan iri gümüş para veya altın para basılması, Ortaçağ’ın Osmanlı kuruluş dönemine tesadüf eden bu son döneminde, ekonominin Batı’da olduğu gibi Anadolu’da da bir duraklama devri geçirmiş olmasıyla açıklanabilir. İktisat tarihçileri, XIV. yüzyılın ikinci çeyreğiyle XV. yüzyılın son çeyreğine veya sonuna kadarki zaman kesitine “durgun ekonomi devri” demektedirler. Rönesans ile birlikte canlanma ve kalkınma hareketlerine paralel olarak ticaret hacmi genişleyince, Batılılar iri gümüş paralar olan gros ve grossone darbına başladılar. Fâtih de bu canlanma hareketine paralel olarak 1470 yılında onluk “Muhammed Hânî”leri, 1478’de ise ilk orijinal Osmanlı altını olan sultânî yi tedavüle çıkarmıştı. Ancak Fâtih 1465’ten beri kendi darphânelerinde, yani İstanbul, Edirne ve Üsküp’te Frengî flori (duka), tutili flori (Cenova altını) ve eşrefiyye (Mısır altını) bastırıyordu.
Akçenin Ayarı ve Nizamî Ağırlığının Zaman İçinde Geçirdiği Değişiklikler. Akçe darbını düzenleyen fermanlar, bunun saf gümüşten olmasını emreder. Nümismatlar, XV. yüzyılın sonu ve XVI. yüzyılın ilk yarısında basılan akçelerin analizlerini yapmışlar ve ayarının binde dokuz yüz olduğunu tesbit etmişlerdir. Akçenin gümüşünün resmen ayarlanma tarihi 1697’dir. Bu tarihten sonra darbedilen akçeler yüzde on oranında bakır ihtiva etmektedir. Akçenin zamanla ağırlığında meydana gelen düşüşlerin yazılı belge ile tesbit edilenleri aşağıdaki tabloda gösterilmiştir. Yüz dirhem gümüşten adet olarak tesbit edilen ağırlık ve gram karşılığı şöyledir:
Yıl Yüz Dirhemden Adet Gr. 1431 260 1.181 1460 330 0.931 1480 400 0.768 1491 420 0.731 1572 450 0.682 1584-1586 800 0.384 1600 950 0.323 1618, 1624, 1641 1000 0.307 1685 1250 0.256 1688 1700 0.188 1692 2300 0.139 1696 1900 0.169 1697 1800 0.178 1705 1900 0.169
Akçenin giderek ufalması, incelmesi ve iktisadî bir değer ifade edemez hale gelmesi, II. Süleyman zamanında para rejiminde bazı değişiklikler yapılmasına yol açmıştır. Gümüş para birimi, guruş, zolota ve küsuratları olan pâreye (para) kaydırılmış, akçe de zamanla aslında bir Mısır Memlük sikkesi olan pârenin küsuratı haline gelmiştir. Üç akçe bir pâre ediyordu. Zamanla pâre akçenin yerini almıştır. 1640’tan sonra uzun süre darphânede akçe basılmamış, akçe darbı padişahın hareme bayram harçlığı dağıtacağı zamanlara inhisar etmiştir. Fakat 1685-1715 tarihleri arasında yaklaşık 68 milyon pâreye karşılık İstanbul Darphânesi’nde, 40,6 milyonu 1692’de olmak üzere, 113 milyon küsur akçe basılmıştır. Fransız sefiri Marquis de Bonnac, 1716’da İstanbul’da tedavülde bulunan Osmanlı gümüş ve altın paralarının ön ve arka yüzlerini, kâğıda damlattığı mühür mumuna bastırarak kalıbını çıkarmış ve hükümetine göndermişti. Bunların içinde teklik ve ikilik akçeler vardı. Bonnac bu münasebetle tekliğin iki liards ve ikiliğin Fransız parasıyla bir sol ettiğini yazmaktadır. Muhtemelen bundan sonra tedavüldeki akçelerle iktifa edilmiş ve yenisi basılmamıştır. Zamanla da akçe adı yalnız bir hesap birimi olarak varlığını sürdürmüştür. Burada akçe tarihi ile yakından ilgili olan sikke tecdidi, sikke tağşişi ve sikke tashihi deyimleri üzerinde de durmak gerekir.
Sikke Tecdidi. Osmanlı padişahları tahta geçer geçmez ilk iş olarak kendi adlarına hutbe okuturlar ve sikke kestirirlerdi. Sultan, kendi adına kestirdiği yeni akçeleri tedavüle çıkardığında selefine ait akçelerin tedavülünü yasaklardı. Eski akçe yasağı kararı, tedavüldeki bütün paraların yeniden darphâneden geçmesi, darphânelerin olağan üstü bir çalışma dönemine girmesi demekti. Eski akçeler ya hurda gümüş olarak ya da devletçe tesbit edilen bir oranda yeni akçeyle değiştirilirdi. Bu münasebetle “gümüş arayıcıları” da denen “eski akçe yasakçıları” görevlendirilir, bunlar çarşı ve pazarda halkın üzerindeki paraları kontrol ederler ve çoğu zaman buldukları eski akçelere devlet adına el koyarlardı. Ancak yasak uygulanması her zaman bu kadar katı olmaz, bazan eski akçe sahiplerine değeri kadar yeni akçe verilirdi. Sikke tecdidi ve eski akçe yasağı, hazineye darp hakkı ve darp ücretinden ileri gelen bir gelir sağlardı. Darphâneler ne kadar fazla gümüş işlerse bu gelir o kadar artardı. Aslında bu politika nakdî servetleri vergilendirme anlamına da gelmektedir. Bu geliri belli sürelerde elde etmek ve zaman zaman kendini gösteren hazine darlığına çare bulmak endişesi, sultanları bir cülûs hadisesi olmadan eski akçe yasakları politikasını uygulamaya dahi götürmüştür. Nitekim Fâtih’in bu politikaya defalarca başvurduğu bilinmektedir. Kendinden önce gelen sultanların da buna başvurdukları ileri sürülebilir. Fâtih sikke tecdidi ile birlikte akçeyi tağşiş ediyor yani ağırlığını düşürüyor, böylece ufak çapta bir devalüasyon kârını da hedef almış oluyordu. Fâtih 1444, 1451, 1460, 1475 ve 1481 yıllarında eski akçe yasağı uygulatmış ve her defasında akçenin ağırlığı bir buğday düşürülmüştür. Bu şekilde bir ayarlamanın yapıldığı tarihlerde genel olarak eski akçe yasağı yetmiyordu. Zira halk zarar etme tehlikesi karşısında akçelerini saklıyor, bunlarla ziynet eşyası ve başka eşyalar yaptırıyor, hatta dış ülkelere kaçırıyordu. Bu sebeple eski akçe yasakları ile birlikte kuyumculuğu, simkeşliği sınırlamanın yanında gümüşten mâmul eşya ihracı bile yasaklanırdı. Fâtih’in ilk sikke tecdidinde yeniçeriler ayaklanmış ve meşhur Buçuktepe Vak‘ası olmuştur. Onun ölümünden sonra yeniçeriler II. Bayezid’den eski akçe yasakları politikasına dönmeme vaadini almışlarsa da bu hükümdar zamanında gene akçe yasakçıları ve gümüş arayıcıları görevlendirilmiş, ancak bu politikada aşırılığa gidilmemiştir. Nitekim 1491 ayarlaması olaysız gerçekleşmiştir.
Sikke Tağşişi. “Akçenin ayar ve tartısını düşürmek” anlamına gelir. Ancak bu iş daha ziyade tartı üzerinden yapılırdı. Hükümetin kararı ile gerçekleştirilen sikke tağşişini, sikke tecdidi politikasının bir bölümü olarak ele almak mümkündür. Bazan darphâneler bunu devletin emrine ve yasağına rağmen yaparlardı. II. Selim’den sonra bunun birçok örneğine rastlanmaktadır. Bu yüzden padişah emriyle, mevcudu yetmiş altıyı bulan Osmanlı darphâneleri birer ikişer kapatılarak sayıları azaltılmıştır.
Sikke Tashihi. Resmî ve gayri resmî akçe tağşişleri ekonomiyi çıkmaza soktuğu ve buna karşı, savaş veya başka bir sebeple acele tedbir alınamadığı zamanlarda “akçe kırkıcılığı” kendini gösterirdi. Piyasada ağırlığı düşük akçeler bulununca, çoğunluğunu gayri müslimlerin özellikle yahudilerin oluşturduğu kuyumcu ve sarraflarla kalpazanlar sağlam akçelerin kenarını kırparak gümüşünü çalarlardı. Bu keşmekeşe son vermek için hükümdarlar sikke tecdidinde yaptıklarını bu defa sikke tashihi adı altında gerçekleştirirlerdi. Sikke tashihinde, yeni akçeler ya eski standart üzerinden yahut bir miktar ağırlığı düşürülerek yeni bir standart üzerinden tedavüle çıkarılırdı. İlk önemli büyük akçe ayarlamasından sonra tedavüldeki sikke tağşiş edilmiş, 1600 yılı tashihinde yüz dirhemden 800 yerine 950 adet; 1618, 1624 ve 1641 tashihlerinde ise yüz dirhemden 1000 adet akçe bastırılmıştır. Bu münasebetle Genç Osman zamanında bir dirhem ağırlığında onluk “Osmânî” diye büyük bir akçe basılmış, Sultan İbrâhim zamanında “İbrâhimî” adıyla bir miktar onluk daha darbedilmiştir.
Akçe ayarlamaları sonucu eşya fiyatları arttığı gibi istikrarlı altın paraların rayiçleri de yükselirdi. Bu sebeple önemli para ayarlamaları yapıldığında eşya fiyatları yeniden tesbit edilir ve genel narh cetvelleri yayımlanırdı. Nitekim 1584 ayarlamasından sonra Koca Sinan Paşa böyle bir narh listesi çıkartmıştı. 1600’de bu liste üzerinde tâdilât yapılmış ve 1641 sikke tashihinde yeni bir narh listesi düzenlenmiştir. Zamanın doları durumundaki Venedik dukasının (frengî filori, yaldız altını), akçe ağırlığındaki değişmeler karşısında yükselen rayici şöyle bir seyir takip etmiştir.
1 Venedik Dukasının Akçe Olarak Değeri: Yıl Akçe Yıl Akçe 1431 35 1618 150-120 1436 36 1624 400-120 1467 40-42 1640 250-120 1475 45 1645 160 1481 47 1653 180 1486 48 1659 220 1487 49 1660 300 1491 52 1665 330-250 1496 54 1690 330 sağlam 1509 55 400 çürük 1529 57 1707 360 1547 60 1721 375 1585 110 1728 400 1587 120 1737 440
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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a.mlf., Bir Asırlık Osmanlı Para Tarihi (1640-1740) (doçentlik tezi, 1974), İÜ İktisat Fak.
a.mlf., “Bir Mültezim Zimem Defterine Göre XV. Yüzyıl Sonunda Osmanlı Darphane Mukataaları”, İFM , XXIII/1-2 (1963), s. 145-218.
a.mlf., “XVII. Asrın İlk Yarısında İstanbul’da Tedâvül Eden Sikkelerin Râici”, TTK Belgeler , I/2 (1964), s. 228-233.
a.mlf., “Osmanlı Para Tarihinde Dünya Para ve Maden Hareketlerinin Yeri (1300-1750)”, Gel.D (1978), s. 1-38.
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a.mlf. – Cevriye Artuk, İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri Teşhirdeki İslâmî Sikkeler Kataloğu , İstanbul 1970-74, I-II.
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a.mlf., “1009 (1600) Tarihli Narh Defterine Göre İstanbul’da Çeşitli Eşya ve Hizmet Fiatları”, TED , sy. 9 (1978), s. 1-85.
Mütekaid Miralay Ali Bey, “Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun ilk Sikkeleri ve ilk Akçeleri”, TOEM , VIII (1334), s. 755 vd.
Uzunçarşılı, “Gazi Orhan Bey’in Hükümdar Olduğu Tarih ve İlk Sikkesi”, TTK Belleten , IX/34 (1945), s. 207-211.
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a.mlf., “Dirhem”, İA , III, 594-595.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1989 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 2. cildinde, 224-227 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.