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BÂBİL Skip to content Eski Mezopotamya’nın en büyük ve en ünlü şehri.
Akkadca “tanrının kapısı” anlamına gelen Bâbil adı (bâb “kapı”, ili “tanrının”), İbrânîce’de Bâbel/Bâvel , Persçe’de Babiruş ve Grekçe’de Babylon şekillerinde kullanılmıştır. Şehrin adına ilk defa milâttan önce III. binyılın sonlarına ait Akkad vesikalarında rastlanır; ancak kuruluşunun çok daha önce olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Çünkü şehrin ilk adı Sumerce Ka-dingir-ra ’dır (ka “kapı”, dingir “tanrı”, -ra “-nın”) ve Bâbil’in bu isimden Akkadca’ya yapılmış bir tercüme olduğu açıklıkla anlaşılmaktadır. Bir çivi yazılı tabletin verdiği bilgiye göre Sumer şehir-devletlerini yıkarak Sâmî Akkad İmparatorluğu’nu kurmuş olan Akkadlı Sargon (m.ö. XXIV. yüzyıl) Bâbil’i ele geçirip tahrip etmiş ve mâbedlerinden kaldırdığı tanrı heykellerini, kendi başşehri Akkad’ın yanına kurduğu yeni Bâbil şehrine götürmüştür (Laessoe, s. 25). Bu bilgiden, ilk Bâbil’in eski bir Sumer şehri olduğu ve Akkadlar tarafından tamamen tahrip edilerek kendi dillerinde yine aynı anlama gelen yeni bir isimle şimdiki harabelerinin bulunduğu yere tekrar kurulduğu sonucu elde edilmekte, ayrıca bugüne kadar yeri tesbit edilemeyen fakat Bâbil yakınlarında olduğu bilinen Akkad şehrinin de Bâbil harabelerini oluşturan tepelerden birinin altında bulunabileceği ihtimaline varılmaktadır (NBD , s. 117). Tevrat’a göre de Bâbil, Nûh tûfanından sonra ilk kudretli adam olan Nemrud’un krallığının başladığı Sinear (Sumer) ülkesindeki dört şehirden biridir (Tekvîn, 10/10).
Bâbil’in en az 2000 yıl devam ettiği anlaşılan tarihî ömrünün başlıca safhalarını Amurrular (Eski Bâbil Krallığı, m.ö. 1894-1595), Kassitler (1595-1174), Asur hâkimiyeti (745-626) Keldânîler (Kaldeliler [Yeni Bâbil Krallığı] 626-539), Ahamenîler (İran hâkimiyeti, 539-332) ve İskender-Selevki (332-275) dönemleri teşkil etmektedir. Bu tarihî safhalar içinde özellikle önem taşıyan iki devir, en büyük hükümdarları kanunlarıyla ünlü Hammurabi olan Amurrular ile Kitâb-ı Mukaddes ve Herodot Tarihi ’nde çeşitli yönleri ayrıntılı biçimde anlatılan Keldânîler devirleridir. Bâbil’e en parlak dönemini yaşatan Keldânîler, imar faaliyetleriyle ve bilhassa dünyanın yedi hârikasından biri kabul edilen Bâbil’in asma bahçelerini ve daha sonra Büyük İskender’in de içinde öldüğü muhteşem sarayı yaptırmakla ünlü II. Nebukadnezzar’ın (605-562; bk. BUHTUNNASR ) ölümünden sonra hızla siyasî ve askerî güçlerini kaybetmeye başlamışlar ve 539 yılında Pers Kralı Kyros (559-530) tarafından yıkılmışlardır. Tarih boyunca pek çok defa ele geçirilen Bâbil her seferinde tahrip edilmesine mukabil ünlü Bâbil Kulesi’nin azameti karşısında büyülenen Kyros tarafından yıkılmayıp onarılmış, fakat altmış yıl sonra başlayan büyük bir isyan üzerine şehri tekrar zapteden Xerxes’in (486-465) emriyle, başta surları ve kulesi olmak üzere hemen tamamı tahrip edilmiştir (478). Daha sonra, Bâbil’i imparatorluğunun başşehri yapan Büyük İskender (336-323) kulenin molozlarını iki ayda 10.000 kişiye temizleterek büyük bir onarım faaliyetine başlamışsa da bu çalışmalar onun ölümü üzerine durmuştur. Şehir I. Seleukos’un (305-280) Dicle kenarında yeni başşehir Seleukeia’yı kurmasından sonra önemini kaybetmiş, 275 yılında da I. Antiokhos’un (281-260) emriyle ahalisinin büyük kısmının yeni başşehre nakledilmesi üzerine yavaş yavaş harap olarak milâttan sonra II. yüzyılın başlarında tamamen metruk hale gelmiştir.
Bağdat’ın 88 km. güneyindeki Hille kasabası yakınlarında, Fırat’ın doğu kıyısında yer alan ve Bâbil, Kasr, ‘Amran İbn Ali, İsnü’l-Esved, Cümcüme, Hümeyra ve Merkez adlı yedi tepe üzerine yayılmış bulunan kalıntıların Bâbil’e ait olduğu Araplar tarafından çok eskiden beri biliniyor ve bu yöreye Atlâlü Bâbil (Bâbil harabeleri) deniliyordu. Avrupalılar’ın bu durumu öğrenmeleri ise ancak yakın çağlarda olmuş ve harabelerin ilmî araştırma ve kazılara konu teşkil etmesi XIX. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinden itibaren başlamıştır. Bazı eski Arap yazarları Bâbil hakkında bilgi vermekte iseler de bu bilgiler çok mübalağalı ve efsanelerle karışık oldukları için pek fazla bir değer taşımamaktadırlar. Meselâ İbnü’l-Kelbî, şehrin 12 × 12 fersah (60 × 60 km.) ölçüsünde bir alanı kapladığını, Büyük İskender tarafından tahrip edildiğini ve Fırat’ın sularının şehrin surlarını yıkmaması için Buhtunnasr tarafından bugünkü nehir yatağına akıtıldığını yazmaktadır. Gerçekte ise asıl şehrin sadece 1000 hektarlık bir alanı kapladığı, İskender tarafından yıkılmayıp bilakis başşehir yapılarak onarımına başlandığı ve Buhtunnasr’ın da Fırat’ın yatağını değiştirmediği, hatta Herodot’un (ö. m.ö. 425) yazdığına göre Kyros’un şehri nehir yolundan fethettiği bilinmektedir. Öte yandan Ebü’l-Fidâ Hz. İbrâhim’in Nemrut tarafından Bâbil’de ateşe atıldığını, el-Bekrî de Bâbil Kulesi’ni Nemrud’un yaptırdığını ve bu kulenin Kur’an’ın “Onlardan öncekiler düzen kurmuşlardı. Bunun üzerine Allah binalarının temelini çökertti de tavanları başlarına yıkıldı. Azap onlara farketmedikleri yerden geldi” (en-Nahl 16/26) âyetinde bahsedilen bina olduğunu yazmaktadır. Gerçeğe en yakın bilgilere İbn Havkal ile Kazvînî’de rastlanır. İbn Havkal kendi yaşadığı çağda (X. yüzyıl) Bâbil’in, üzerinde küçük bir köy bulunan harabelerden ibaret olduğunu, oradaki yapıların Irak’takilerin en eskilerini teşkil ettiğini, şehrin Ken‘ân hükümdarları tarafından kurulup saltanat merkezi ittihaz edildiğini ve kalıntılardan geçmiş dönemlerin ihtişamının anlaşılabildiğini, Bâbil yakınında Hille’de kadılık yapan Kazvînî de (ö. 1283) harabelerdeki tuğlaların halk tarafından inşaatlarda kullanılmak üzere yağmalandığını bildirmektedir (Arap yazarlarının verdikleri bilgiler için bk. topluca İA , II, 177-179; EI2 [İng.] , I, 846). Yapılan ilmî araştırmalar, bugün de adına Bâbil denilen, Nebukadnezzar’ın kuzey sarayı kalıntılarının yer aldığı tepede bir Abbâsî yerleşim merkezinin bulunduğunu ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bâbil’in binalarının tamamen tuğladan yapılmış olması, şehrin terkedilmeye başladığı milâttan önce III. yüzyıldan harabelerinin yakın yıllarda koruma altına alınmasına kadar, bölge sakinlerince muazzam bir tuğla ocağı olarak kullanılmasına yol açmıştır. Buna rağmen bugün sistemli arkeolojik kazılar, kazılarda bulunan çivi yazılı tabletlerle tabletler üzerine çizilmiş planlar ve bir süre burada kalan Herodot gibi yazarların yaptıkları açıklamalar sayesinde şehrin büyük bir kısmı son çağlarındaki biçimiyle tesbit edilmiş bulunmaktadır.
Kazılarda ortaya çıkarılan mimari eserlerin hemen tamamı Keldânîler’den kalmadır ve daha eski dönemlere ait yapıların çeşitli fetihler sonucu meydana gelen yıkımlarla II. Nebukadnezzar’ın giriştiği imar faaliyetleri sırasında yok edilmiş olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Bâbil’i bir kanallar şehri haline getiren, Herodot’un efsanevî kraliçe Semiramis tarafından yaptırıldığını söylediği ünlü su kanallarının çoğunun ise Hammurabi dönemine ait olduğu belirlenmiştir. Kazılar sonunda tesbit edildiğine göre Keldânîler devrindeki Bâbil, bugün yatağını değiştirerek harabelerin biraz uzağından geçen Fırat’ın iki yakasında 1000 hektarlık dikdörtgen planlı bir arazi üzerine kurulmuş ve önünde derin bir hendek bulunan, dıştaki yaklaşık 4 m., içteki 6,5 m. kalınlığında olan çift sıralı surlarla koruma altına alınmıştır. Ayrıca şehrin Fırat’ın doğusunda kalan ana kesimi, sonradan surların dışına taştığı anlaşılan mahallelerle bunların kuzeyine inşa edilen II. Nebukadnezzar’ın sarayını da içine alacak şekilde, iki ucu Fırat’a varan 18 km. uzunluğundaki üçüncü bir surla daha çevrilmiştir. Kazılar sonunda, Herodot ile yine milâttan önce V. yüzyılda yaşayan Pers Kralı Kyros’un hekimi Yunanlı Ktesias tarafından verilen bilgilerin çok abartmalı olduğu anlaşılmış, ancak yine de sekiz büyük kapıdan girilen Bâbil’in ellinin üzerinde mâbedi, iki sarayı, birbirini kesen sokakları, muntazam caddelerin açıldığı geniş meydanları ve Fırat’ın iki yakasını birleştiren, taş ayaklar üzerine kurulmuş tarihin ilk büyük köprüsü ile eski dünyanın en büyük şehri olduğu ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Klasik yazarların, II. Nebukadnezzar’ın dağlık Medya’dan gelen eşi için vatan hasretini dindirmesi amacıyla yaptırdığını yazdıkları asma bahçelerin kalıntıları kesin olarak tesbit edilememiştir. Ancak kazılar sırasında bulunan güçlü ayaklara oturtulmuş, ne oldukları tam anlaşılamayan bazı tonoz ve kemerlerin bu bahçelerin teras alt yapıları olabileceği ileri sürülmektedir.
Bâbil’in Eskiçağ tarihinde klasik yazarları da etkileyen ve şehri tasvir ederken mübalağa yapmalarına sebep olan çok büyük bir şöhreti bulunmaktadır. Burası daima, özellikle semavî dinlerde insanoğlunun kendini beğenmişliğinin, Allah’a baş kaldırışının, ahlâksızlığın ve büyücülüğün merkezi kabul edilmiştir. Ancak bu inanışlarda gerçek payı bulunmakla beraber, II. Nebukadnezzar’ın milâttan önce 586’da Kudüs’ü tahrip ederek halkının tamamını Bâbil’e götürmesi sonucu yahudilerin başlattıkları ve özellikle “Bâbil esareti”nin bitmesinden (m.ö. 539) sonra da burada kalarak “Bâbil Talmudu”nu (bk. TALMUD ) kaleme alan din adamlarının devam ettirdikleri menfi propagandanın da rolü büyüktür. Meselâ Eski Ahid’in bir babının tamamı, “Ey fahişe!” diye hitap ettiği Kudüs’ün ahlâksızlıklarını ayrıntılı biçimde anlattığı (Hezekiel, 16/1-63) ve tarihin herhangi bir döneminde Bâbil böyle bir lakapla anılmadığı halde (IDB , I, 338), Romalılar devrinde kaleme alınan Yeni Ahid’de kimliği açıklanmadan kötülenmek istenen Roma Bâbil adı altında tanıtılmış ve “alnında dünyanın fahişelerinin ve iğrençliklerinin anası” yazılı bir kadına benzetilmiştir (Vahiy, 17/5). Bâbil’in küfrü ve Allah’a karşı dik başlılığı sembolize etmesi ise Bâbil Kulesi’nden kaynaklanmaktadır.
Bâbil Kulesi. Bâbil, adının mânasından da anlaşıldığı üzere dinî önemi büyük bir şehirdi ve burada gerek çivi yazılı tabletlerin, gerekse klasik yazarların verdikleri ölçülere göre Mezopotamya’daki geleneksel mâbed kuleleri olan zigurat ların (Akkadca zakāru “dikilmek, yükselmek”ten) en büyüğü bulunuyordu. Bu ziguratın ne zaman yapıldığı bilinmemekte ise de bir tablette Akkad Kralı Şarkalişarri’nin (2217-2193) Bâbil’deki ziguratı tamir ettirdiğini söylemesi, Bâbil’in ikinci kurucusu Sargon tarafından yaptırılmış olabileceğini akla getirmektedir; ancak adının yine Sumerce olması (Etemenanki ), ilk Bâbil (Kadingirra ) şehrinde de bulunduğunu gösterir. Bu gibi tarihî konularda Benî İsrâil efsanelerini aynen benimseyen eski İslâm müfessirlerine göre de Micdel (köşk) adını verdikleri Bâbil Kulesi Nemrud tarafından yaptırılmıştır. Bugün yerinde sahn (çukur) denilen geniş ve derin bir çukurun yer aldığı Bâbil ziguratını, bazı Sumer şehirlerinde nisbeten sağlam vaziyette bulunan daha küçük benzerlerine bakarak bilinen boyutları içinde tasavvur etmek mümkün olmaktadır. Kaynaklardan ziguratın 91 × 91 m. ebadında bir kare taban üzerine oturduğu, tamamı 75 m. yükseklikte gittikçe küçülen altı kattan meydana geldiği ve tepesinde kat sayısını yediye, toplam yüksekliği 91 metreye çıkaran mavi sırlı tuğlalardan yapılmış baştanrı Marduk’un hariminin, çevresinde ise mâbed kompleksi ile muhtemelen şehre adını veren “mukaddes kapı”nın yer aldığı öğrenilmektedir. Herodot, tepeye katların tamamını dıştan dolanan bir merdivenle çıkıldığını, ancak bir yatak odası şeklinde döşenmiş olan Marduk’un harimine, tanrının seçtiği bâkirelerden başka kimsenin giremediğini yazmaktadır (I, 181-182). Bâbil ziguratı, büyüleyici azametiyle Mezopotamya sanatlarını kuvvetle etkilemiş, Asur dikili taşlarının hemen tamamı bu şekilde yapıldığı gibi İslâmî devirde de benzerlerinin dikildiği görülmüştür. Meselâ Abbâsîler döneminde Bağdat yakınlarında inşa edilen Sâmerrâ Ulucamii’nin Melviye (helezon) denilen minaresi, Bâbil Kulesi’nin, yıkılmasından çok sonraki asırlarda dahi Mezopotamya halklarının hâfızalarında yaşamaya devam ettiğini göstermektedir. 3 m. yüksekliğinde, 33 × 33 m. ebadında bir kare kaide üzerine oturan ve tepe kısmı bir köşk görünümünde olan minareye, gövdesini dıştan saran 2,30 m. enindeki müezzin yolu ile gittikçe daralan yedi katlı âbidevî bir kule şekli verilmiş ve minare bu hali ile Bâbil Kulesi’nin yuvarlak gövdeli küçük bir kopyası durumunu almıştır. Yine aynı döneme ait olan Ca‘feriye şehrindeki Ebû Dülef Camii’nin minaresi de bu kulenin daha küçük bir benzeridir.
Ziguratın tepesindeki mukaddes mahal sebebiyle Marduk mâbed kompleksine verilen Sumerce ad E-sag-ila ’dır ve kelime anlamı, Tevrat’taki “başı göklere erişecek kule” ifadesine (Tekvîn, 11/4) temel teşkil edecek şekilde “başını (göğe) kaldırmış (yükseltmiş) tapınak”tır. Hiç şüphesiz Eskiçağ tarihinin en yüksek yapısını oluşturan Bâbil ziguratının bir de bu anlama gelen isme kaynak olması, kule kavramının Allah’a karşı baş kaldırmayı göstermesine sebep teşkil etmiştir. Benî İsrâil geleneğinde, Nemrud’un Allah’a kafa tutmak ve saldırmak için yüksek bir kule yaptırması şeklinde yer alan bu küfür ve isyan motifi (İA , IX, 192), Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de de Firavun’un ağzından, “Ey ileri gelenler! Sizin benden başka tapacak bir tanrınız olmadığına eminim. Ey Hâmân! Benim için çamur üzerine ateş yak (tuğla yap) ve bana öyle yüksek bir kule yap ki Mûsâ’nın tanrısına çıkabileyim” meâlindeki âyetle dile getirilmiştir (el-Kasas 28/38; el-Mü’min 40/36-37).
Bâbil Kulesi aynı zamanda karışıklığın ve yetmiş iki dilin, yani bütün dünya dillerinin bir tek ana dilden türemiş olduğu yolundaki görüşün sembolüdür ve bu sembol bazı ilim adamları tarafından delil olarak dahi kullanılmıştır (TA , V, 15). Tevrat’a göre tûfandan sonra Sinear bölgesine yerleşen Hz. Nûh’un oğulları, “Bütün yeryüzü üzerine dağılmayalım diye gelin kendimize bir şehir ve başı göklere erişecek bir kule bina edelim…” derler ve inşaata başlarlar. Ne var ki Allah, hepsinin bir kavim olduklarını görünce anlaşamasınlar diye dillerini karıştırır ve onları bütün dünyaya dağıtır; inşaatı yarım kalan şehre de dillerin orada birbirine karışmasından dolayı Bâbil denilir (Tekvîn, 11/1-9). Bu efsane bütün ilim adamları tarafından kabul edildiği üzere Bâbil adı için, kelime mânasının unutulduğu dönemlerde İbrânîce bālal “karıştırmak” kökünden yapılan halk etimolojisinin bir hikâyeyle süslenmesinden ibarettir. Ancak bu hikâyede gerçek payı olduğu ve başı göklere yükselen kulesi ile Allah’a isyanı sembolize eden Bâbil’in mâzisindeki, düşman tarafından ele geçirilip bir kısım halkının tehcir edilmesi olaylarından birine telmihte bulunulduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Mezopotamya’nın en büyük ticaret merkezi ve en kozmopolit şehri olan Bâbil’in en karışık ahaliye sahip olduğu dönem Keldânîler devridir. Hükümdarlık sarayındaki kitâbelerden, bu devirde bir kısmı benliğini yitirmiş vaziyette 2000 yıldan beri birlikte yaşayan Sumer, Akkad, Guti, Amurru, Kassit, Ârâmî, Asurlu gibi kavimlerin üzerine, II. Nebukadnezzar’ın Kudüs yahudilerinin tamamı ile zaptettiği çeşitli ülkelerden şehrin imarı, özellikle ziguratın onarımı için esir işçiler ve Filistinli, Fenikeli, Mısırlı, İyonyalı, Elamlı, Med ve Pers ustalar getirdiği öğrenilmektedir. Kitâb-ı Mukaddes’in bahsettiği, başlangıçta tek olan dilin Bâbil’in ve kulenin yapımı sırasında çeşitli dillere, Hz. Nûh’un torunlarının sayısına göre de yetmiş iki dile (Tekvîn, 10/1-32) ayrılması efsanesinin böyle bir gerçekten kaynaklandığı açıkça belli olmaktadır. Hz. Muhammed’in de “Benî İsrâil yetmiş iki fırkaya ayrıldı; benim ümmetim ise yetmiş üç fırkaya ayrılacaktır, biri hariç hepsi cehennemliktir” (Tirmizî, “Îmân”, 18) meâlindeki hadisi ile bu efsaneye temas ettiği görülmektedir.
Bâbil Kuyusu. Bâbil, Hârût ve Mârût adlı iki melekle ilgili olarak (bk. HÂRÛT ve MÂRÛT ) bir defa da Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de zikredilmiştir (el-Bakara 2/102). Tarihi boyunca Mezopotamya’nın en önemli astronomi ve astroloji-kehanet merkezlerinden biri olan Bâbil’in, özellikle Keldânîler ve Ahamenîler döneminde büyücülüğün de merkezi haline geldiği bilinmektedir (DB , s. 608). Kur’an da söz konusu âyette, kötüye kullanmamaları şartıyla halka büyü öğreten Hârût’la Mârût’tan bahsetmek suretiyle Bâbil’deki büyücülük faaliyetlerini zımnen dile getirmiştir. Kur’an’da bu iki meleğin cezalandırıldıklarına dair herhangi bir açıklama yapılmamış olmasına rağmen eski Ön Asya efsanelerinin ve özellikle Benî İsrâil rivayetlerinin tesirinde kalan pek çok müfessir ve tarihçi, bu iki meleğin cinsî arzuya kapılarak suç işlediklerini ve bu sebeple de Bâbil kuyusuna baş aşağı asıldıklarını kabul etmektedirler. Fakat ne çivi yazılı belgelerde, ne Herodot ile Ktesias’ın yazdıklarında ve ne de kazılarla ortaya çıkarılan Bâbil kalıntılarında “Bâbil kuyusu” adıyla temayüz edebilecek önemli bir kuyu izine rastlanmaktadır. Buna karşılık Bâbil Kulesi’nin yerinde büyük ve derin bir çukur görülmekte ve bu çukurun, Bâbil harabelerini asıl tuğla deposu haline getiren ziguratın yerinde, asırlarca süren tuğla yağmacılığı sonucu temelinin de sökülmesi suretiyle açıldığı açıkça anlaşılmaktadır. Çukurun derinliği ise eski Bâbilliler’in, ziguratın bir benzerinin de yerin altında bulunduğuna dair olan inançlarını (TA , V, 15) desteklemekte ve kuleye verilen Sumerce E-temen-an-ki adının anlamına (göğün ve yerin temeli olan tapınak) da ışık tutmaktadır. Öte yandan Hârût ve Mârût olayının tefsirinde göz önünde tutulan bir Benî İsrâil rivayetinde de Şamhozoy (Shemhazai) adlı bir meleğin yine cinsî günah işledikten sonra tövbe edip ceza olarak kendini “gökle yer arasına baş aşağı astığı” anlatılmaktadır (Doğrul, s. 35, not 96; EI2 [İng.] , III, 237). Hârût-Mârût efsanesine tam bir paralellik gösteren bu efsanede, günahkâr meleğin kuyu yerine gökle yer arasına asılması “kuyu” ve “gökle yer arası” kavramlarını birleştirmekte, bu durum ise Bâbil Kulesi’nin gerçek adının taşıdığı “göğün ve yerin temeli” anlamına çağrışım yapmaktadır. Buna göre, Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de ve orijinal kaynaklarda adına rastlanmayan Bâbil Kuyusu’nun, özellikle sahn adlı çukurun etkisiyle yine Bâbil Kulesi’nden türetilmiş bir efsane motifi olduğu kuvvetli bir ihtimal halinde akla gelmektedir. Ayrıca Bâbil Kuyusu tabirine, Bâbil’in bir ahlâksızlık merkezi olarak tanınmasından dolayı “Bâbil batağı, günah çukuru, gayya kuyusu” anlamında mecazi bir değer eklemek de mümkündür.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Tirmizî, “Îmân”, 18.
Mevlânâ, Dîvân-ı Kebîr (nşr. Abdülbâki Gölpınarlı), İstanbul 1957, I, 430.
E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums , Darmstadt 1953, II/2, s. 185-186.
J. Laessoe, People of Ancient Assyria , London 1963, s. 25.
A. L. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia , Chicago 1965, s. 48-63, 109-125, 153-163.
S. N. Kramer, The Sumerians , Chicago 1967, s. 137, 293-294.
A. T. Olmstead, History of Assyria , Chicago 1968, s. 337-357, 476-488.
Ömer Rıza Doğrul, Tanrı Buyruğu , İstanbul 1980, s. 35-36, not 96.
Abdullah Aydemir, Tefsirde İsrâiliyyât , Ankara, ts., s. 136-161.
E. Herzfeld, “Bâbil”, İA , II, 177-179.
A. J. Wensinck, “Hârût ve Mârût”, İA , V/1, s. 305-306.
B. Heller “Nemrûd”, İA , IX, 192-194.
Arseven, “Babil”, SA , I, 146-148.
W. von Soden, “Babylon”, RGG , I, 808-812.
T. Jacobsen, “Babylon”, IDB , I, 334-338.
F. E. Robinson – J. P. Hyatt, “Magic, Divination, and Sorcery”, DB , s. 608.
My. J. Siff, “Babel, Tower of”, EJd. , IV, 22-25.
M. E. L. Mallowan, “Babylon”, EBr. , II, 948-950.
D. J. Wiseman, “Babel”, “Babylon”, “Babylonia”, NBD , s. 116-128.
G. Awad, “Bābil”, EI2 (İng.) , I, 846.
G. Vajda, “Hārūt wa-Mārūt”, a.e. , III, 236-237.
G. Cardascia, “Babylon”, EIr. , III, 325-326.
M. A. Dandamayev – G. Gnoli, “Babylonia”, a.e. , III, 326-336.
“Babil”, TA , V, 13-17.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1991 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 4. cildinde, 392-395 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.