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BAROK Skip to content Avrupa’da XVI. yüzyıl sonunda doğan bir sanat üslûbu.
Maniyerizmi takip eden karşı reformasyon hareketlerine bağlı olup XVIII. yüzyıl ortalarına kadar devam etmiştir. Baroque kelimesinin Portekizce’de gayri muntazam incilere verilen barroco isminden veya barok sanatın öncülerinden olan İtalyan ressam Federigo Baroccio’nun (ö. 1612) soyadından alındığı sanılmaktadır (bk. Webster’s Third , s. 178). Barok kelimesinin, bu üslûbun Fransızlar’ın klasik zevk anlayışına ters düşen gösterişli, abartmalı ve kurallara uymayan tarzı sebebiyle önceleri küçültücü görülen anlamı, XIX. yüzyılda bu üslûbun güzelliğinin anlaşılmasından sonra değişmiştir. Antikiteden çok şey alan barokta kahraman ideali hıristiyan düşünce sistemi ile kaynaştırıldı. Mutlakiyetçilik, Allah’ın yeryüzündeki temsilcisi olarak kabul edilen krala bağlandı (Fransa’da XIV. Louis, İtalya’da papalar gibi) ve barokun ana prensiplerinden biri haline getirilip çeşitli Avrupa ülkelerinde değişik biçimlerde uygulandı.
Michelangelo’ya barokun babası unvanını kazandıran Floransa’daki Laurenziano kütüphane binasında mimari elemanların arasındaki denge bilinçli bir şekilde bozulmuş ve kendine has bir hareketlilik kazandırılmıştır. Cizvitler’in ana kilisesi olan Roma’daki II Gesu Kilisesi’nde yeni mekân anlayışıyla kullanılagelen mimari elemanların bir sentezi görülür. Yine Roma’da S. Carlo alle Quattro Fontana veya S. Maria della Pace Kilisesi’nde görülen kırık pencere alınlıkları, binaların iç ve dışındaki ışık-gölge oyunlarının yanında konkav ve konveks duvar alanları, kubbelerde dairenin yerini dikine veya yatay ovalin alması gibi yenilikler geldi. Bu köklü değişikliklerin yanında barok mimarinin en önemli özelliklerinden biri de yapı sanatının heykel, süsleme ve resim ile ayrılmaz bir bütün halini alması ve süslemede yoğun bir şekilde, (S) ve (C) formlarının, istiridye kabuğu motiflerinin ve altın yaldızın kullanılışıdır. Büyük saraylar ve köşkler havuz, fıskıye, kanal gibi su elemanları ile zenginleştirildi ve hareketlendirildi. Barok sarayların en güzel örneğini teşkil eden Paris yakınındaki Versailles Sarayı, uzun süre gerek Avrupa’nın gerekse dünyanın çeşitli ülkelerinde yeni yapılan saraylara örnek oldu.
Yeni konularıyla olduğu kadar başladığı, bittiği yerleri sade ve kesin bir şekilde sınırlanmamış açık kompozisyonları ile de dikkat çeken barok resim dengeli Rönesans resimlerinden ayrılır. Kubbe resimlerinde sanki kubbenin mimari yapısı göğün sınırsızlığına açılır ve figürler gök kubbenin kenarlarından aşağıdaki seyircilere bakarlar veya bulutlar arasında uçuşurlar. Bu devirde hareketli figürlere ve ışık-gölge oyunlarına yer veren resim sanatı, büyük boyutlu tablolarla olduğu kadar duvar resimleriyle de sarayların ve kiliselerin süslenmesine yardımcı oldu. Dinî konuların yanında alegorik ve mitolojik konuların da işlendiği barok resimde Carravaggio, Rubens, Velasquez, Tintoretto, Rembrandt, Vermeer, Borromini ve Bernini en ünlü isimlerdir.
Avrupa’nın doğu komşusu Osmanlı Devleti’nin geniş topraklarında barok sanat kendine has özellikler gösterir. Barok resim, Avrupa sanat akımlarından çok ayrı bir yönde ve İslâmî sanat gelenekleri çizgisinde gelişme gösteren Osmanlı resmi üzerinde hemen hemen yok denecek kadar az etki yaptı. Ancak durum mimari ve dekoratif sanatlar için aynı olmadı. III. Ahmed’in Paris’e sefir olarak gönderdiği Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmed Efendi’nin orada gördüğü sarayları, köşkleri ve onların bahçelerini anlatan yazıları İstanbul’da büyük bir merak uyandırdı. Bu dönemin lükse düşkün çevrelerinde Fransız saray ve bahçelerinin benzerlerini yapmak arzu ve modası doğdu. Bu merak saraydan etrafa doğru genişleyen halkalar gibi dalga dalga bütün imparatorluğa yayıldı. Saray mimarlarının Avrupa’da yeni yeni gelişen bu sanat akımını tanımaları ve oradakilere benzer saraylar, bahçeler yapabilmeleri için kitaplar ve planlar getirtildi. Bugün birçoğu Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Kütüphanesi’nde bulunan bu belgeler, XVIII. yüzyıldan itibaren Osmanlı mimarisinde ve dekoratif sanatlarında görülen değişikliklerin ana kaynağını oluşturmuştur. Türk zevk ve sanat geleneğinin bu yeni kaynakla birleşmesi, tamamen kendine has bir karaktere sahip olan Türk barok üslûbunu doğurmuştur.
İstanbul’da Kâğıthane yeni fikirlerin uygulandığı bir alan oldu. Kâğıthane deresi, Fransız saray bahçelerindekilere benzer şekilde kanal içine alındı ve yer yer setler yapılarak havuzlar oluşturuldu. Suyun balık kabartmaları arasından dolanıp setlerin üzerindeki mermer çanakların birinden diğerine dökülmesi gibi oyunlar planlandı. Kanalın kıyılarına Sâdâbâd Kasrı gibi padişah mâlikâneleri ile saray erkânı için boy boy ve çeşit çeşit köşkler yapıldı. III. Selim ve annesinin Topkapı Sarayı haremindeki daireleri, yine Topkapı Sarayı’nda bulunan Lala Mustafa Paşa Köşkü sivil barok mimarisinin en güzel örnekleridir. Yüklük ve dolaplarla vitraylı tepe pencerelerinin çeşitli süslemelerinde uygulanan üslûp, saray dışında olduğu kadar Osmanlı Devleti’nin her köşesinde ev mimarisiyle birlikte yayılmıştır.
Dolmabahçe, Beylerbeyi, Yıldız saraylarında ve daha birçok geç dönem köşk ve kasırlarıyla büyük konaklarda görülen çift kollu merdivenler ve mimari süslemeler eklektik üslûbun içindeki barok özelliklerdir. Bu karışık üslûptaki binaların arasına, Beylerbeyi Sarayı’nın deniz tarafında dalgalanan çatılarıyla yer alan bir çift küçük köşk de girer. Yeni Çırağan Sarayı da karma üslûbunda barok unsurlara sahiptir. Çoğu Abdülaziz ve II. Abdülhamid zamanında yapılmış olan Yıldız Sarayı’nın muhtelif köşklerinde de durum farklı değildir. Gerek İstanbul gerekse imparatorluğun diğer bölgelerindeki evlerde yerli mimari geleneklerine bağlı kalınmıştır. Barok etki daha çok duvar süslemeleriyle tepe pencerelerin vitraylarında (S) ve (C) kıvrımları, akantus yaprakları ve volütlü hatlar şeklinde bulunur. Topkapı Sarayı Harem Dairesi’ndeki III. Selim’in odasında olduğu gibi Türk odasının baş süslemelerinden duvar hücreleri, sakça gözleri ve klasik sivri kemerler barok eğim ve dilimlerle yeni bir hareket kazanır.
İlk barok cami olan Nuruosmaniye (1748-1755), yarım daire avlusu ile geleneksel cami mimarisinden ayrılır; ayrıca bu yapıda avluda bulunması gereken şadırvana da yer verilmemiştir. Nuruosmaniye, külliyenin bütününe hâkim planıyla caminin bir kaideye oturtulup yükseltilmesiyle ve konsol, silme, kornişlerdeki süsleme kompozisyonları ile artık yeni fikirlerin dinî mimari için de kabul edildiğini ve uygulanma alanı bulduğunu ortaya koyar. Korniş ve konsollarda tek veya çift kıvrımlı volütlerin görülmesi, silme profillerindeki değişiklikler, kubbelerin yüksek birer kasnağa oturtulması ve yuvarlak veya oval pencereler de barokun getirdiği özelliklerdir. Bu özellikler, gerek yapının esas bünyesinde gerekse ayrıntılarında olmak üzere Fâtih Külliyesi içindeki Nakşidil Sultan Türbesi’nde de bulunur. İstanbul’da Zeyneb Sultan, Lâleli, Nusretiye, Üsküdar’da Yeni Vâlide Sultan, Selimiye, Bursa’da Emîr Sultan ve Konya’da Aziziye camilerinde barok üslûbun getirdiği yenilikler uygulanmıştır. İstanbul’da Küçük Efendi Tekkesi de oval orta mekânı ile barok üslûbun tarikat mimarisindeki örneğidir.
Topkapı Sarayı’nın Bâb-ı Hümâyun’u ve III. Ahmed Çeşmesi’nin hemen yanına rastlayan Ayasofya Hünkâr Dairesi’nin kapısı, Alay Köşkü ve karşısındaki Bâb-ı Âlî, bulundukları çevrelere yeni bir hava katan eserlerdir. Türk barokunun Türk sanatına kazandırdığı yeni görüntülerden biri olan cami avlularının ortalarındaki şadırvanların dalgalı veya geniş saçaklarının benzerleri III. Ahmed, Tophane, Üsküdar ve Azapkapı çeşmeleri gibi meydan çeşmeleriyle Yıldız Sarayı bahçesindeki çeşmede bulunmaktadır. Maçka’daki II. Abdülhamid ve Küçüksu çeşmelerinde olduğu gibi daha sonraki çeşmelerde gövde biraz küçülmüştür.
Türbelerin sokağa bakan köşelerine yapılan sebiller duvar yüzeyinden yuvarlak biçimde dışarı taşarak ajurlu şebekeleri ve geniş saçaklarıyla şehre güzellik katarlar. Eyüp’te Vâlide Mihrişah Sultan, Lâleli’de Koca Râgıb Paşa, Mercan’da Beşir Ağa, Gülhane Parkı’nın karşısında Zeyneb Sultan Camii’nin yanına taşınmış olan I. Abdülhamid ve Nuruosmaniye sebilleri başlıca örneklerdir. Barok üslûbun kendini hissettirdiği istiridye kabuğu motifi, Şehzade Camii civarındaki Ayşe Sultan ve Üsküdar Nuhkuyusu semtinde Alacaminare Camii arsasının üst tarafında bulunan Hüsâmeddin Ağa çeşmelerinde görülür. III. Ahmed ve Tophane çeşmelerinde ise Avrupa’da sık rastlanan çiçek demeti, rozet, çiçekli vazo ve meyve doldurulmuş ayaklı kap motifleri yer almaktadır ki bunlar aynı zamanda Türk barokunun dikkati çeken özellikleridir ve mezar taşlarına da yansımışlardır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Webster’s Third , s. 178.
Celal Esad Arseven, Türk Sanatı Tarihi , İstanbul 1954, I.
Doğan Kuban, Türk Barok Mimarisi Hakkında Bir Deneme , İstanbul 1954.
a.mlf., Architecture of the Ottoman Period, The Art and Architecture of Turkey (nşr. Ekrem Akurgal), New York 1980, s. 137-169.
G. Goodwin, A History of Ottoman Architecture , London 1971.
Oktay Aslanapa, Turkish Art and Architecture , London 1971.
Ayda Arel, Onsekizinci Yüzyıl İstanbul Mimarisinde Batılılaşma Süreci , İstanbul 1975.
Nurhan Atasoy, 17. ve 18. Yüzyıllarda Avrupa Sanatı , İstanbul 1976.
Günsel Renda, “Europe and The Ottomans”, Akten des XXV. Internationalen Kongresses für Kunstgeschichte “Europa und die Kunst des Islam” Wien 4-10 September 1983 , Wien 1985, s. 9-32.
Aptullah Kuran, “Türk Barok Mimarisinde Batı Anlamında Bir Teşebbüs Küçük Efendi Manzumesi”, TTK Belleten , XXVII/107 (1963), s. 467-470.
Semavi Eyice, “Kâğıthane-Sâdâbâd-Çağlayan”, Taç , I/1, İstanbul 1986, s. 29-36.
Gül İrepoğlu, “Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Hazine Kütüphanesindeki Batılı Kaynaklar Üzerine Düşünceler”, Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Yıllığı , I, İstanbul 1986, s. 56-73.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1992 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 5. cildinde, 81-83 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.