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BARUT Skip to content
Arapça’da neft kelimesiyle ifade edilmişse de bazı Arap ülkelerinde barut kelimesi de kullanılmıştır. Menşei halen karanlık olan barut kelimesine muhtemelen ilk defa İbn Baytâr’ın (ö. 1248) el-Câmiʿ li-müfredâti’l-edviye ve’l-aġẕiye adlı eserinde yer verilmiştir. Daha sonra İbn Fazlullah el-Ömerî’nin (ö. 1348) et-Taʿrîf bi’l-muṣṭalaḥi’ş-şerîf ’inde geçen kelime Türkçe’de de kullanılmış, Farsça’ya ve bazı Balkan dillerine Türkçe’den geçmiştir.
İlk defa Çinliler tarafından bulunduğuna, XII. yüzyılda bütün Asya kıtasına, bir süre sonra da Avrupa’ya yayıldığına dair yaygın bir kanaat vardır. Bununla beraber ilk defa nasıl kullanıldığı, kimin tarafından geliştirildiği, hatta kıtalar arasında nasıl yayıldığı hakkındaki bilgiler azdır. Barutun insan toplulukları üzerindeki etkisi büyük oldu. Barut toplumların ve devletlerin yapısını değiştirdiği gibi orduların güçleri de onu kullanan devlete göre arttı. Gemilerde kullanılması, top atışlarının farklı şekiller almasına ve deniz kıyısındaki devletlerin siyasetlerini değiştirmelerine yol açtı. Barutun İslâm âlemine girişi ve ateşli silâhlarda kullanılması, Türk tarihi içinde belirli merhaleleri de beraberinde getirdi. Silâh sanayiinin gelişmesi, çok değişik büyüklük ve ağırlıkta silâhların kullanılmaya başlanması, siyasî tarih kadar devletlerin iktisadî yapısına, hatta hukuk kavramlarına da tesir etti.
Barutun kullanılması büyük ölçüde Haçlı seferlerinden sonra gelişme gösterdi. Doğu ile Batı âlemlerinin birbirini tanımada önemli rol oynayan bu seferler sırasında İslâm dünyasında yaygın olan barut, kale kuşatmalarında hem kuşatan hem de kuşatılanların büyük ölçüde işine yaradı. Batı âlemi bu patlayıcı maddenin gücünü İspanya’daki Endülüs Emevî Devleti aracılığı ile öğrendi. Askerî alandaki kullanımı kısa zamanda giderek artan barutun kimyevî özellikleri de dikkati çekti ve nerede, nasıl kullanılması gerektiği hususunda simyacılar, fizikçiler ve mühendisler faaliyete geçirildi. Bizans İmparatorluğu zamanında kullanılan ve grégeois diye adlandırılan ateşin bir özel kimya birleşiminden meydana gelen barut çeşidi olduğu ileri sürüldü (bk. ÂTEŞ-i RÛMÎ ). Ancak barutun çeşitli silâhlarda başarıyla kullanılması İslâm dünyasında daha yaygındır. XIII. yüzyılda kömür, kükürt ve güherçileden meydana gelen “kara barut” ise (bk. BARUTHÂNE-i ÂMİRE ) çok daha hızlı bir şekilde yayıldı. Şehir kuşatmaları sırasında surların altında açılan dehlizlere yerleştirilen bu patlayıcı madde kuşatılanların gücü üzerinde olumsuz hava meydana getirdi. Barutu en iyi tanıyan ve kullananların başında Anadolu Selçukluları geliyordu. Çünkü kısa süre içinde Karamanoğulları top imalinde ileri gittiği gibi ele geçirilen kalelere neft atıcılar, zenberekçiler ve topçular koydukları da bilinmektedir.
İslâm âleminde barutun yaygınlaşması Osmanlı Devleti zamanında hızlandı. Kısa sürede kuvvetli bir devlet kurmayı başaran Osmanlılar fetihlerde silâh olarak toptan çok faydalandılar. İlk defa Kosova Meydan Muharebesi’nde (1389) kullanıldığı ileri sürülen topun daha önce Orhan Gazi zamanında kullanıldığı da nakledilmektedir (İbn Kemal, II, 139, 163). 1453’te İstanbul’un fethi sırasında Türkler geliştirdikleri ileri teknik sayesinde büyük toplar döktüler ve uzun süre Avrupa devletlerine karşı üstünlüklerini korudular. Tüfeğin icadı ve kısa zamanda yayılmasından sonra barutun kullanım alanı daha da genişledi. Bilhassa Yavuz Sultan Selim zamanında Osmanlı ordusunda tüfekli askerler önemli yer tuttu. Bu arada topçuluk alanında yapılan yenilik ile sabit toplara paralel olarak hareket eden top sistemi de geliştirildi.
İslâm dünyasında ateşli silâhların kullanımında Memlük Devleti’nin özel bir yeri bulunmakla birlikte, Memlükler topçuluk konusunda Osmanlılar’la boy ölçüşemediler. Silâh yapımında Kansu Gavri devrinde bir reform teşebbüsünde bulunulduysa da herhangi bir ilerleme sağlanamadı. Bir taraftan Akdeniz’e, diğer taraftan da Kızıldeniz yolu ile Hint Okyanusu’na açılan bu devletin denizlerde ve kara taraflarında ateşli silâhlara büyük ihtiyacı olmakla beraber maden azlığı ve kullanacak yetenekli insanların bulunmaması sebebiyle silâh üstünlüğü devamlı olarak geriledi. Mısır’ın Osmanlı topraklarına katılması ise dünya siyasetine ve silâh üretimine değişik bir yön verdi.
İran topraklarında kurulan devletler, ateşli silâhların ve bu arada barutun kullanılması hususunda Batılı devletlere başvurdular. Meselâ Akkoyunlu Hükümdarı Uzun Hasan zamanında Venedik Cumhuriyeti’nden topçu ustaları çağrıldı ve askerî alanda bir yenilik yapılması istendi. Fâtih’in Otlukbeli Zaferi’nden sonra Doğu tehlikesi bertaraf edildiyse de XVI. yüzyılda İran şahları da bu siyasetlerinden vazgeçmediler. Ancak topçuluk için yaptıkları bir dizi teşebbüslere rağmen Osmanlılar’a karşı üstünlük sağlayamadılar. Osmanlılar sınır boylarındaki kale ve palankalara silâhlı savunma aletleri koydular. Hatta Hindistan’a ve silâh yardımı isteyen diğer bazı İslâm ülkelerine silâh uzmanları yolladılar. Osmanlı topçuluğu bilhassa madenlerin bulunduğu yörelerin ele geçirilmesinden sonra büyük bir hamle içine girdi. Baruthânelerin kurulması ve işletmeye açılması, yeni iş alanlarını da beraberinde getirdi. Başta İstanbul olmak üzere imparatorluğun çeşitli yerlerinde kurulan baruthâneler çok sıkı kayıtlar altında çalıştırıldı. “Tophane” denilen top döküm ve tamir yerleri devletin büyük bir titizlikle koruduğu yerlerdi. Edirne’den başka Gelibolu’da da kurulan baruthâne, bilhassa Rumeli fetihlerinde ve bu arada deniz harekâtında çok yararlı görevler üstlendi.
Ateşli silâhlar XVI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından sonra hızla yayıldı. Gerek dışarıya karşı gerekse iç isyanların bastırılmasında barutun kullanılmasının büyük tesiri oldu. İsyanların etkili olmasının da barutun kullanılmasından kaynaklandığını söylemek mümkündür. Bütün bu iç ve dış çekişmeler devletin malî durumunu sarsmakla beraber yeni birtakım buluşları da beraberinde getirdi. XVII. yüzyılda devleti uzun süre uğraştıran Abaza Hasan Paşa isyanının bastırılmasında güçlü silâhların devlet kuvvetlerince kullanılmasının büyük rolü oldu. Aynı asırda devleti uğraştıran başka isyanlar çıkmakla beraber âsiler uzun süre dayanamadılar.
Donanmada da kullanılmaya başlanan ateşli silâhlar, XVI. yüzyılda Akdeniz’de oluşturulan Osmanlı gücünün en önemli özelliği idi. Çeşitli gemilerde kullanılan toplar, Venedik donanması başta olmak üzere Akdeniz’de dolaşan ileri teknolojiye sahip gemilere karşı Türk üstünlüğünü tanıttı. XV. yüzyıl ortalarında başlayan bu üstünlük 1571 İnebahtı Deniz Savaşı’na kadar devam etti. İnebahtı bozgunu devletin deniz politikasında temelden bir değişikliğe yol açtı. Başta İngiltere ve Hollanda olmak üzere Avrupa devletlerinin, gemi çeşitlerinde yenilik yapmaları ve büyük gemileri gerek ticaret gerekse askerî alanda kullanmaları Osmanlı Devleti’nin gerilemesine yol açtı. Artık eski tersaneler ve buralarda yapılan gemiler çağdaş olmaktan uzak kaldığı gibi değişik ve gelişmiş silâh türlerinin de devreye girmesi Türk dünyasını tehdide başladı. Yeniliklere uzak kalmanın bedelinin ödendiği ilk örneklerden birisi, yirmi beş yıl devam eden Girit Savaşı’dır. Çok defa deniz muharebelerinde üstün gelen Venedik donanması bu sırada Çanakkale Boğazı’nın önünü kapattı ve İstanbul’un tehlike içinde bulunduğu haberini yaydı. Osmanlılar tehlikeden, kara tarafından gerçekleştirilen top atışları sayesinde kurtuldular. Bu bombardımanlardan Venedik kaynaklarında sitayişle bahsedilmektedir. Fakat başta Avusturya olmak üzere Avrupa cephesinde bir dizi yenilikler birbirini takip ederken Osmanlı Devleti’nde gerileme başladı. Denizlerde devam eden başarısızlıkların sebeplerinden biri ateşli silâh alanında yeniliklere ayak uydurulamayışıdır. Bununla beraber bazı devlet adamları kötü gidişi durdurmak için bir dizi tedbir almaktan geri kalmadılar. Bilhassa XVIII. yüzyılda ülkenin içinde bulunduğu askerî buhranı çözmek için harp okullarında köklü yenilikler yapıldı. Kara ve Deniz Harp akademilerinin çekirdeği sayılan bu okulların kurulma teşebbüslerinden sonra geleneksel sınıflara bir canlılık verilmesi yolunda çabalar gösterildi. Ancak harp meydanlarında birbirini takip eden yenilgiler, devlet kademelerinde belirgin bir yılgınlığın doğmasına yol açtı. XIX. yüzyılda ise Avrupa’dan teknik yardım istendi ve Prusya’dan uzmanlar getirtildi. Moltke başkanlığında gelen bu uzmanlar, geçici bazı başarılara rağmen, XIX. yüzyılın sonundaki ve bilhassa asrımızın başındaki savaşlarla Balkan savaşları ve I. Dünya Savaşı’ndaki bir dizi yenilgiyi ve devletin parçalanmasını engelleyemedi. İstiklâl Harbi sırasında Türk topçuları müstesna bir başarı gösterdiler. Cumhuriyet’in kurulmasından sonra tophâne ve baruthânede birtakım yenilikler yapıldı. İstanbul Zeytinburnu’nda silâh fabrikası kuruldu, kışlalar genişletildi. Barutla kullanılan silâhlar II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında temelden değişiklik geçirdilerse de silâhlanmada barut hâlâ ilk malzeme olma özelliğini korumaktadır.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1992 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 5. cildinde, 92-94 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.