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BERÎD Skip to content BERÎD İslâm devletlerinde istihbarat ve posta teşkilâtına verilen ad.
Müellif: İbrahim Harekât
Kelimenin aslı hakkında değişik görüşler vardır. Latince “posta hayvanı” mânasındaki veredus tan geldiğini iddia edenler bulunduğu gibi Arapça olduğunu veya Farsça “kesik kuyruklu” anlamına gelen bürîde-düm den alındığını söyleyenler de vardır. Zira İranlılar diğer hayvanlardan kolayca ayırt edebilmek için posta hizmetindeki hayvanların kuyruklarını keserlerdi. Berîd kelimesi “süvari, postacı, elçi, ulak, iki posta menzili arasındaki mesafe, postaya verilen yazılar ve dosyalar, resmî işlerle ilgili posta” gibi çeşitli mânalarda kullanılmıştır. Berîd teşkilâtı Sâsânîler ve Bizans’ta olduğu gibi Câhiliye devrinde Araplar’da da mevcuttu.
İslâm tarihinde resmî postanın düzenlenmesi çalışmaları daha Hz. Peygamber zamanında başlamıştır. Nitekim bu devirde yazışma, tâlimat ve anlaşma metinleri özel elçiler vasıtasıyla gönderilmekteydi. Haberciye verilen önem Hz. Peygamber’in, “Antlaşmayı bozmam ve elçileri (bürud) hapsetmem” (Ebû Dâvûd, “Cihâd”, 151) meâlindeki hadisiyle de teyit edilmektedir. Buna bağlı olarak Hz. Peygamber’in vahiy kâtipleri yanında resmî yazışmalarını kaleme alan kâtipleri, yabancı devletlerden gelen veya onlara gönderilen mektupları çeviren mütercimi vardı. Müslümanlar Yermük’te savaşırken Hz. Ebû Bekir’in öldüğünü ve Hz. Ömer’in halife olduğunu, Hâlid b. Velîd’in azledilerek yerine Ebû Ubeyde b. Cerrâh’ın tayin edildiğini berîd vasıtasıyla öğrenmişlerdi. Hulefâ-yi Râşidîn döneminde posta sadece resmî işlere münhasır kalmayarak halkın da faydalandığı bir teşkilât haline getirilmiştir. Ayrıca Hz. Ömer devrinde görevlilerin konaklamaları için Kûfe dolaylarında posta evleri inşa edilmiştir.
Emevîler devrinde İran ve Bizans’ı örnek alarak sistemli bir posta teşkilâtı kuran ilk halife Muâviye’dir. Devlet hazinesinden bu iş için 4 milyon dirhem ayrılmıştı. Râşid halifeler devrinde berîd teşkilâtının görevi halifelerin emirlerini vali ve âmillere, onlardan gelen haberleri de halifelere ulaştırmaktan ibaretken Muâviye zamanında bu teşkilâta istihbarat görevi de verildi. Abdülmelik b. Mervân bu gelişmeyi devam ettirerek en mükemmel şekle ulaştırdı. Buna göre posta âmiri olan sâhib-i berîd edindiği bilgileri anında halifeye arzetmekle mükellef tutuldu. Son Emevî halifesi II. Mervân döneminde posta hizmetleri çıkan karışıklıklar sebebiyle kesintiye uğradı.
Abbâsîler’in ilk zamanlarında posta teşkilâtı yeniden düzenlendi. Halife Mehdî-Billâh Bağdat ile bazı Bizans liman şehirleri arasındaki bağlantıyı yeniden sağladı. Dîvânü’l-berîd veya Harâit olarak adlandırılan teşkilâtın sorumlusuna da sâhib-i berîd veya harâitî denildi. Bilhassa Hârûnürreşîd’in halife olmasından sonra teşkilâtın Emevîler devrindeki seviyesine getirilmesi için çalışmalar yapıldı ve bu işle Yahyâ b. Hâlid el-Bermekî görevlendirildi. Dîvânü’l-berîd’de başlıca şu görevliler bulunuyordu: Sâhibü dîvâni’l-berîd, ummâlü’l-berîd, muvakki‘ler, mürettipler, fervânikîler, vükelâ ve muhbirler. Bu devirde ana yollar üzerinde yaklaşık her 12 veya 24 kilometrede (2-4 fersah) bir menzil noktası (sikke, ribât, merkezü’l-berîd) kurularak buralara beytülmâl adına berîdî katarlar tahsis edildi ve teşkilât genişletildi. Abbâsîler zamanında bu istasyonların sayısı 930 idi. Haber götüren ulak her menzilde hayvanını değiştirirdi; dönüşte de aynı yolu takip ederdi. Ulak geri dönmeyecek olursa hayvan son menzilde beytülmâl adına alıkonurdu. Menzillerde vazife görenler bu hizmetleri karşılığında ulûfe alırlardı. Abbâsîler’in bu teşkilât için harcadıkları para 8 milyon dirheme ulaşmıştı. Ulaklar haber yanında halifelere gönderilen özel eşyayı da taşırlardı. Me’mûn Horasan valiliği sırasında bu teşkilât vasıtasıyla Kâbil’den taze meyve getirtmişti.
Endülüs Emevî Devleti’nde de başşehir Kurtuba ile eyaletler arasında süratle haberleşmeyi sağlayan berîd teşkilâtının mevcut olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Sâhibü’l-bürud denilen görevlinin eyaletlerde çok sayıda adamı vardı ve olaylardan vaktinde haberdar oluyordu. Daha çok Sudanlı zencilerin görevlendirildiği teşkilâtta âcil mesajları daha kısa sürede ulaştırmak gayesiyle XI. yüzyıldan itibaren posta güvercinleri de kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Abbâsîler’den ayrılan ve müstakil bir devlet hüviyetini alan Mısır’daki Tolunoğulları ve Sâmânîler de berîd teşkilâtını devam ettirmişlerdir. Ayrıca aynı teşkilât Gazneliler tarafından da kurulmuştur. Gazneliler valilerin faaliyetlerini kontrol eden kethüdâdan başka sâhib-i berîd veya nâib-i berîd denilen bir görevli istihdam ederlerdi.
Selçuklu sultanları çeşitli yerlerde görevlendirdikleri “sâhib-i haber”ler vasıtasıyla ülkede olup bitenleri kısa sürede öğreniyorlardı. Ancak kuruluş yıllarında berîd teşkilâtına önem verilmediği ve Dîvânü’l-berîd’in kaldırıldığı anlaşılmaktadır (Nizâmî-i Arûzî, XI, 24). Kaynakların ifadesine göre casusluktan ve casuslardan nefret eden ve bunların dostu düşman, düşmanı dost göstermesinden dolayı faydadan çok zarar getireceğine inanan Sultan Alparslan, veziri Nizâmülmülk’ün karşı çıkmasına rağmen berîd teşkilâtını kaldırmıştır (Bündârî, s. 67). Bâtınîler’in Selçuklu hâkimiyeti altındaki topraklarda uzun zaman gizli faaliyetlerde bulunduktan sonra büyük bir örgüt olarak ortaya çıkması genellikle bu teşkilâtın yokluğuna bağlanmaktadır. Ancak Alparslan’dan sonra bu müessesenin Nizâmülmülk’ün gayretleriyle yeniden kurulduğu anlaşılıyor. Vezir Nizâmülmülk hükümdarların ordu ve halkın durumu ve faaliyetleri hakkında bilgi edinmesi için çok güvenilir habercilere ihtiyacı olduğunu, dünyanın dört bir tarafına tüccar, seyyah ve sûfî kılığında casuslar gönderilmesi gerektiğini söyler (Siyâsetnâme, fasıl X, XIII). Sultan Melikşah ile veziri Nizâmülmülk’ün casuslar kullandığı, ayrıca Sultan Sencer’in de Edîb Sâbir’i casusluk vazifesiyle Hârizm’e gönderdiği bilinmektedir. Çok geniş bir sahaya hükmeden Büyük Selçuklu Devleti’nin böyle önemli bir teşkilâttan mahrum olarak varlığını sürdürmesi mümkün değildir. Kirman Selçuklu Hükümdarı Muhammed b. Arslanşah’ın da hem kendi ülkesinde hem de komşu memleketlerde sâhib-i haber denilen istihbarat görevlileri istihdam ettiği kaydediliyor (Muhammed b. İbrâhim, s. 29).
Zengîler ve Eyyûbîler de bu teşkilâtı ıslaha çalışmışlar ve posta işlerinde daha çok deve kullanmışlardı. Selâhaddîn-i Eyyûbî haberleşmede güvercin ve gemilerden de faydalandı. Mısır ve Suriye’de hüküm süren Türk Memlükleri, Dîvânü’l-berîd ve bölgeye ait diğer hizmetleri daha önceki dönemdeki haline döndürebilmek için büyük çaba sarfetmişlerdir. Haçlı seferleri dolayısıyla bozulmuş olan berîd teşkilâtı bilhassa I. Baybars tarafından canlandırıldığı gibi yollar ve köprüler de inşa ettirilmiştir. Ayrıca emniyetin sağlanması için belli merhalelerde ve tehlikeli yerlerde bir nevi küçük kale biçiminde kervansaraylar yaptırılmıştır. Böylece hem askerî hem de idarî ve iktisadî bir emniyet zinciri oluşturulmuştur. Bu emniyet zinciri Dımaşk-Halep, Dımaşk-Rahbe, Halep-Ayas, Dımaşk-Trablusşam, Dımaşk-Safed, Dımaşk-Kerek ve Dımaşk-Beyrut güzergâhları üzerinde uzanmaktaydı. Devlet hazinesine önemli bir yük getirmekle birlikte Baybars’ın askerî ve siyasî başarılarında bu teşkilâtın büyük rolü olmuştur. Nitekim Kahire’den Dımaşk’a ortalama dört günde, Halep’e beş günde gidildiği, hatta âcil bir durumda Halep’e üç günde varılabildiği kaynaklarda zikredilmektedir.
Başlangıçtan itibaren berîd teşkilâtı belli bir sistem içinde yürütülmüştür. Sâhib-i berîdlik görevini yürüten şahıslar arasında Emevîler’de Kubeyse b. Zueyb, Abbâsîler’de Abdülmelik ez-Zeyyât en önemli şahsiyetler olarak görülür. Memlükler’de ise posta işleri “sâhibü dîvâni’l-inşâ” veya “kâtibü’s-sır” adı verilen bir kişinin elinde idi ve bütün tayin ve aziller onun bilgisi dahilinde yapılırdı.
Sâhib-i berîdliğe tayin edilecek kişinin çevre, yol, mesafe, menzil vb. şeyleri iyi bilmesi ve çok güvenilir olması gerekiyordu. Bundan dolayı zaman zaman kadıların sâhib-i berîd tayin edildiği görülmektedir. Bu şartlar hem merkeze hem de taşraya tayin edilecek kimseler için geçerliydi. Bunlara ayrıca sâhib-i haber de denirdi. Sâhib-i haber, halkın üst düzey görevlileri ve devlet memurlarının hal, tavır ve durumlarından halifeyi haberdar etmekle de görevliydi. Savaş sırasında düşmanın durumunu öğrenmek için Hz. Peygamber tarafından da bu şekilde istihbaratçı kullanılmıştır. Daha sonra halifeler döneminde İranlılar örnek alınarak posta ve istihbarat vazifesi birleştirilmiştir. İlk defa İran Hükümdarı Büyük Kyros tarafından yapılan bir düzenlemeyle posta askerî teşkilât içerisinde telakki edilmiş ve posta görevlilerinin en önemli vazifeleri arasına istihbarat işleri de dahil edilmişti. Araplar da İran’dan casusluk vb. hususlardan bahseden eserleri ele geçirerek bu teşkilâtı İslâm dünyasına sokmuşlardır.
Haber işinde kullanılan posta elçilerine özel bir işaret verilmekteydi. Bu işaret avuç içi büyüklüğünde gümüş bir levha olup bir yüzünde besmele ve halifenin adı, diğer yüzünde de إِنَّا أَرْسَلْنَاكَ شَاهِدًا وَمُبَشِّرًا وَنَذِيرًا “Ey Muhammed! Doğrusu biz seni şahit, müjdeci ve uyarıcı olarak gönderdik.” (el-Feth 48/8) âyeti yazılı idi. Mısır Memlükleri’nde bakırdan veya gümüşten olan bu levha bazı değişikliklere uğramıştır. Postacı ulaklık alâmeti olarak bu levhayı sarı ipek bir kurdele ile boynuna takardı. Sâhib-i berîd ile hükümdar ve emîrler arasında bir şifre vardı. Bu şifre-işareti taşımayan mektuplara sâhib-i berîdin hattıyla yazılmış olsa dahi güvenilmezdi.
Posta taşımacılığında şartlara göre deve, at ve katır kullanılmıştır. Posta hayvanlarını kullanan kimselere IX. yüzyıl başlarında aylık 150 dinar ödenmekteydi. Bu hayvanlarla halifenin özel yükü dışında bir yük veya sâhib-i berîdin izni olmadan herhangi bir şey taşınması yasaktı.
Müslümanlar hızlı posta servisinde posta güvercinleri (el-hammâmü’z-zâil, el-hammâmü’l-hevâdî) kullanmışlardır. Abbâsîler’in ilk döneminden itibaren posta güvercinleri özel olarak yetiştiriliyordu. Bilhassa Halife Mehdî-Billâh buna büyük ilgi gösteriyordu. Fiyatları oldukça yüksek olan bu güvercinlerden İstanbul’dan Basra’ya 1000 dinar karşılığında getirildiği kaynaklarda yer almaktadır. Rakka ve Musul’dan Bağdat, Vâsıt, Basra ve Kûfe’ye güvercinlerle yirmi dört saat içinde haber ulaştırılıyordu. Abbâsî Veziri İbn Mukle 313’te (925-26) Karmatîler’le savaşırken güvercinlerle Bağdat’a devamlı haber ulaştırmıştır. Bunun yanı sıra güvercinlerin neseplerini bildiren tablolar yapılmış ve hatta Fâtımîler’de posta güvercinleri için divan oluşturulmuştur. Zengîler zamanında da posta güvercini kullanılmıştır. Mektuplar gubârî hatla iki suret yazılır ve iki saat aralıkla iki ayrı güvercin vasıtasıyla gönderilirdi. Ebü’l-Hasan b. Mülâib el-Bağdâdî bu konuda Halife Nâsır-Lidînillâh adına bir kitap yazmıştır. Ayrıca Muhyiddin İbn Abdüzzâhir de aynı konuda Temâʾimü’l-ḥamâʾim adlı bir eser kaleme almıştır.
Güvercinlerle yapılan haberleşmelerde kâğıtlar güvercinin bir ayağına geçirilen halkaya bağlanır ve kuşlar salıverilirdi. Bu şekilde güvercinler vasıtasıyla İstanbul-Basra, Mısır-Suriye ve Mağrib şehirleriyle haberleşme yapıldığı tesbit edilmiştir. Bu haber güvercinleri için posta merkezleriyle ilgisi olmayan özel iniş yerleri yapılmıştı. Bunlar çeşitli bölgelerde inşa edilen burçlardan meydana gelmekteydi. Bu burçlar aynı zamanda güvercinlerin uçuş tâlimi ve terbiyesi için de kullanılmıştır.
Özellikle emniyeti ilgilendiren konularda, âcil haber ulaştırmada ateş işaretine de başvurulmuştur. Milâdî IX. yüzyılda bu tür haberleşme sahil boylarında yaygın şekilde yapılmaktaydı. Bu usulle haber Sebte’den (Ceuta) İskenderiye’ye bir gecede ulaştırılmaktaydı. Özellikle doğudan gelen istilâ hareketlerine karşı müslümanlar bu haber şeklini kullanarak onların takip ettikleri yol ile ağırlık noktalarını merkeze bildirmişlerdir. Ateş ocakları tepe başlarında veya dağlarda bulunmaktaydı. Buralardan sorumlu kişiler belirli yerlerde gizlenir, yöre halkı da bunlara yardım ederdi. Türkler tarafından Mısır ve Suriye’de uygulanan bu sistem Mağrib’de Ebü’l-Hasan el-Merînî döneminde (1331-1348) sahil boylarında kullanılmıştır.
Berîd teşkilâtının menzil adı altında biraz farklı şekilde kurulduğu Osmanlılar’da posta görevlilerine ulak veya tatar denirdi. XIX. yüzyılda İslâm toplulukları posta sistemine geçmişler ve bu sistemi ilk uygulayan devlet, II. Mahmud zamanında Osmanlı Devleti olmuştur. Bu yeni haberleşme teknikleri zamanla diğer İslâm devletlerine de geçmiştir (bk. MENZİL ; ULAK ).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1992 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 5. cildinde, 498-501 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.