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BERKES, Niyazi Skip to content (1908-1988)
Türk sosyologu.
21 Ekim 1908’de Lefkoşe’de doğdu. Kıbrıslı Hüseyin Hüsnü Bey ve Dervişe Hanım’ın ikiz oğlundan biridir. İlk ve orta tahsilini doğduğu yerde tamamladıktan sonra İstanbul’a gitti. 1928’de İstanbul Erkek Lisesi’ni bitirdi. 1928-1931 yılları arasında Dârülfünun Edebiyat Fakültesi Felsefe Bölümü’nde felsefe ve sosyoloji öğrenimi gördü. Mezuniyetinin ardından bir süre Ankara Maarif Cemiyeti Ortaokulu ile Halkevi Kütüphanesi müdürlüklerinde bulundu. 1935 yılında İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi’nde sosyoloji asistanı oldu. Aynı yıl Amerika’ya giderek Chicago Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Fakültesi Sosyoloji Bölümü’nde lisans üstü araştırmalarında bulundu. 1939’da yurda dönünce Ankara Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi’nde sosyoloji doçenti oldu. Bir yandan akademik neşirlerini sürdüren Berkes bir yandan da Behice Boran ve Muzaffer Şerif Başoğlu gibi sol eğilimli yazarlarla ideolojik muhtevalı dergilerin yayımlanmasına katkıda bulundu. 1945 yılında vekâlet emrine alındı. Ardından Danıştay kararıyla görevine iade edildiyse de dersleri dekanlıkça tatil edildi. Hakkında görevini kötüye kullandığı gerekçesiyle açılan davayı kazanmasına rağmen kadro dışı bırakıldı ve görevinden ayrılmak zorunda kaldı. 1952’de Kanada Mc Gill Üniversitesi Lisans Üstü Araştırmalar Fakültesi’nde sosyoloji profesörü oldu; 31 Ağustos 1975’te de milletlerarası “emeritus profesör” unvanını aldı. Emekli olduktan sonra İngiltere’ye yerleşti ve 18 Aralık 1988’de küçük bir sahil kasabası olan Hythe’de öldü (bk. Coşkun, s. 53).
Berkes’in fikrî çalışmalarına yön veren temel problem Türkiye’nin çağdaşlaşması konusu olmuştur. The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal 1964) adlı başlıca eseri bu çalışmaların sonunda ulaştığı neticelerin bir ifadesidir; kitap Türkiye’de Çağdaşlaşma adıyla bizzat yazarı tarafından Türkçe’ye çevrilmiş ve Cumhuriyet’in 50. yılına armağan edilmiştir (Ankara 1975; İstanbul 1978).
Niyazi Berkes’in bütün araştırmalarının odaklaştığı alan, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin bütün Türk tarihi içindeki yeri ve öneminin ortaya konulmasıdır. Dolayısıyla o Cumhuriyet’in devlet düzeni, ekonomik yapısı ile Türk insanına hâkim olan mânevî âmillerin, inançların ve törenin anlaşılabilmesi için tarihî kopukluğun ortadan kaldırılması gerektiğine inanır. Berkes bu sebeple çalışmalarını, Osmanlı tarihinin siyasî, ekonomik ve sosyal alanlarda yaşadığı gelişmeleri göz önüne alarak Türkiye’nin 200 yıllık temel meselesi olan Batılılaşma üzerinde yoğunlaştırdı. Ona göre Türkiye için Batılılaşma, birbiriyle karşılıklı etkileşim halinde bulunan üç temel unsurun, yani laikleşme, çağdaşlaşma ve milliyetçiliğin ulaştığı nihaî bir terkiptir. Berkes, Türkiye’de Çağdaşlaşma ’da politik toplumun din-devlet ilişkisini laikleşme ile kesin ve kalıcı bir çözüme ulaştırmasının köklerini Osmanlı sosyal tarihinde aradı. Osmanlı toplumunu feodal bir toplum olarak görenlerin hata ettiğini her fırsatta vurgulayarak bu toplum yapısının “Doğu despotizmi” kavramıyla açıklanabileceğini savundu. Berkes’e göre kulluk sistemine dayalı despotik rejimlerde devlet ve toplum arasındaki bünye kopukluğu sebebiyle kaçınılmaz bir durgunluk doğar; bu durgunluk evrimleşmenin, ileriye doğru yol almanın tarihî bir engeli haline gelir. Bu yüzden Berkes toplum ve kültür yapısına yeni bir hareketlilik kazandırmayı amaçlayan son dönem Batılılaşma gayretlerini anlamlı işaretler olarak değerlendirdi; özellikle II. Mahmud ve sonrasında Osmanlı hukukî muhitinin laikleşme yönündeki düzenlemeleriyle laikliği savunan Osmanlı-Türk düşünürlerinden Şinâsi, Nâmık Kemal ve Ali Suâvi’nin görüşlerine yer verdi. Ayrıca Türk milliyetçiliğini ateşleyen akımları düşüncede ve aksiyonda inceledi. Nihayet Türkiye’nin Batı medeniyeti içinde yerini almasını ise bir ölümkalım savaşı olarak değerlendirdi. Berkes’e göre laik olmayan bir toplumun ekonomik gelişme seviyesi ne olursa olsun Batılılaşma’sı söz konusu değildir, böyle bir toplum çözülmeye mahkûmdur.
Berkes’in iddiasına göre “secularism”le ifade edilmesi gereken laiklik, yalnızca üst yapıyı ilgilendiren bir mesele değil bütün yapıyı tanımlayan bir kavramdır. Secularism terimi, kaba bir din-devlet ayırımından daha kapsamlı bir anlam ifade ettiğinden “çağdaşlaşma” şeklinde anlaşılmalıdır. Çünkü “kutsallaşmış gelenek boyunduruğundan kurtulma” süreci laikliği de içine alacak şekilde çağdaşlaşma gayretinin ta kendisidir. Çağdaşlaşma, geleneğin din ile kutsallaştırılması ve zorunlu değişimlere direnmesi karşısında ortaya çıkan problemlerle başlayan bir süreçtir. Bu, toplumu “dinselleşme hummasının yakasından kurtarma” sürecidir. “Şu halde çağdaşlaşma konusunda asıl sorun, ‘kutsal’ sayılan alanın ekonomik, teknolojik, siyasal, eğitsel, cinsel, bilgisel yaşam alanlarında daralması, etkisizleşmesi sorunudur” (bk. Türkiye’de Çağdaşlaşma , s. 15-21).
Bu düşünüşüyle Berkes’in, “din”i beşerî hayatın bütün yönleriyle ilgili kılavuz hüküm ve değerlerin vazedildiği bir sistem olarak tanımlamaktan yana olmadığı anlaşılmakta, “kutsal”ı yalnızca ferdin vicdanını ilgilendiren ve dünyevî olanla ilişkisi bulunmayan bir değer mefhumu olarak kavradığı görülmektedir. Berkes’in düşüncesinde “din” ve “gelenek” kavramlarının bir zıtlık içinde değerlendirilmesi sonucunda din tartışma konusu olmaktan çıkarılmakta ve gelenek kutsallaştırılmış şekilleriyle donuklaşan, aslında din ile ilişkisi bulunmamasına rağmen yenilik teşebbüsleriyle karşılaştığı anda din kisvesine büründürülerek zorunlu değişmelere direnen menfi bir kutup tanımı kazanmaktadır (a.g.e. , s. 18). Bu yaklaşımıyla Berkes gelenekçilik-çağdaşlık kutuplaşmasını temel bir sürtüşme noktası olarak değerlendirirken çok defa İslâm dininin dünya hayatına ait prensip düzeyindeki düzenlemelerini göz ardı etmektedir.
Berkes’e göre soyut bir laiklik prensibi olmadığı gibi Fransızca’daki anlamıyla “laicisme” de Türkiye’nin çağdaşlaşma problemine uygulanamaz. Laiklik konusunda Türkiye’de ortaya atılan, “din ile devlet birbirine karışmasın” ve “laiklik dinsizliktir” şeklindeki iki görüş de yanlıştır. Çünkü ilki devlet ve dinin Türk-İslâm tarihine özgü özelliklerini görmemekle yanılmakta, ikincisi ise din dışı siyasî amaçlarla bu özellikleri gözlerden kaçırarak yanıltmaktadır. Oysa birbirinden ayrılmaları gereken devlet ile din Batı modelinde ayrı tutulan cismanî ve ruhanî otoriteler niteliğinde değildir. Çünkü teokrasi Batı’ya özgüdür ve İslâm dini teokratik bir düzen teklif etmez. “Teokratik devlet görüşü, çağdaşlaşma sürecine karşı sonradan çıkmış bir ideolojidir” ve sözü edilen ikinci görüş, bu ideoloji mensuplarının bir yanıltmacasından ibarettir (a.g.e. , s. 529).
Berkes, dinin afyon olduğu şeklindeki Marksist anlayışı ancak modern çağlar için geçerli ve din istismarcılığı anlamıyla doğru kabul ederek dinlerin altın çağı olarak nitelendirdiği Ortaçağ’ın karanlık olduğu görüşüne karşı çıkar. Berkes’e göre saf bir din olarak İslâm din simsarlığına karşı olduğu gibi bir devlet emretmez ve bir rejim öngörmez. Bu bakımdan, “Osmanlı rejiminin en önemli yanı dinsellikten çok gelenekselliktir”; hatta, “İslâm dini açısından böyle bir devlet meşrû olmaktan uzaktır. Çünkü dinsel geleneğin değil güçsel, siyasal, militer bir geleneğin ürünüdür” (a.g.e. , s. 29; Teokrasi ve Laiklik , s. 115-116). Esasen genel olarak müslüman toplulukların tarihinde de bir “din devleti” yer almamıştır (bk. Teokrasi ve Laiklik , s. 14-16, 27-28, 75-76). Bunun genel olarak farkında olunmamasından ötürü laiklik kavramı Türkiye’de hem “gericiler”i hem de “ilericiler”i yanıltmaktadır. Gericiler bu kavramı din aleyhtarlığı olarak görmekte, ancak aleyhtarlığın Ortaçağ İslâmı’nda teşekkül eden kutsal geleneğe karşı olduğunu anlamak istememektedirler. İlericilerse Batı’daki gibi İslâm tarihinde de bir teokrasi var zannedip laikliği onun zıddı saymaktadırlar. Sonuç olarak Berkes’e göre mesele “din sorunu” değil siyaset meselesidir (bk. a.g.e. , s. 171-176). Nitekim laiklik savunucusu birçok yazarın iddia ettiğinin aksine sözde din adına yapılan isyanlarla II. Osman, III. Selim, Sadrazam Halil Hamîd Paşa, Sadrazam Midhat Paşa ve Ali Suâvi gibi kişilerin öldürülmesini dinî sebeplere bağlayarak dini ve din adamlarını suçlamak büyük bir yanılgıdır. Zira “buna ne İslâm ne de Osmanlı uygulamasında olanak yoktur.” Bu olaylar tamamen din ve din adamları dışındaki kişi ve kuruluşlarca ve siyasî sebeplerle gerçekleştirilmiştir (a.g.e. , s. 159-160).
Osmanlı Devleti’nin çağdaşlaşma sürecindeki sürtüşmelerin izahında Berkes’in üzerinde durduğu esas mesele gelenekçilik-çağdaşlaşma kutuplaşmasıdır. XVIII. yüzyılın başlangıcından itibaren sarsıntı geçirmeye başlayan geleneksel Osmanlı düzeni, önce askerî planda girişilen ıslahat teşebbüslerine, ardından Tanzimat ve Meşrutiyet olarak devam eden sosyal ve siyasî plandaki yenilik arayışlarına konu olmuş; eski ve yeni, gelenek ve çağdaşlık kutuplaşması münâvebeyle kaydedilen başarı ve başarısızlıklarla Cumhuriyet denilen radikal değişimi hazırlamıştır. Batılılaşma sürecinin Tanzimat sonrasında doğurduğu problem ve çarpıklıklar her ne kadar Batılılaşma’yı bir problem olarak gösteriyorsa da Berkes’e göre Türkiye’nin baş meselesi Batılılaşmak değil Batılılaşmamak’tır (bk. Özer, I, 284).
Berkes’in dinle gelenek arasında gördüğü sınır, onun düşündüğü kadar keskin ve iletişim kabul etmez değildir. Berkes geleneklerin temelde dinle hiçbir ilgisi bulunmadığını ve tarihte bu ilginin bir bakıma sunî olarak kurulmaya çalışıldığını iddia ederken problemi olduğundan çok daha kolay ve o kadar da sağlıksız bir yoldan halletmek istemiştir. Gerçekte geleneklerin arkasındaki İslâmî doktrini incelemeden varılan bu yargı, Berkes’in başta fıkıh ve tasavvuf olmak üzere İslâmî ilimleri hak ettiği çizgide ele almadığını göstermektedir. Ayrıca Batılılaşma’yı, gelenekleri topyekün inkâr yoluyla gerçekleştirme teklifi netice itibariyle toplumun kendi tarihî ve kültürel benliğinden tamamıyla sıyrılması anlamına gelir ki bunun ne derecede kabul edilebilir bir çağdaşlaşma olduğu, hatta böyle bir yenileşmeyi tahripkâr olmadan gerçekleştirmenin ne ölçüde mümkün olduğu tartışmaya açık bulunmaktadır. Nitekim Berkes’in kendisi de bu güçlüğü görmekte ve günümüz Cumhuriyet Türkiyesi’nin “kayıtsız şartsız Batılılaşma” tezinin bu noktada “en kritik, en çapraşık, en sorunlarla dolu bir aşama”ya varmış bulunduğunu belirtmektedir (Türkiye’de Çağdaşlaşma , s. 27). Çağdaşlaşma ile aynı şey saydığı Batılılaşma’yı kaçınılmaz bir kader olarak gören Berkes’in (a.g.e. , s. 26) bilim, felsefe, akıl, teknoloji, din, gelenek vb. temel kavramlar hakkında Batı’daki modern tartışmalardan ve yeni arayışlardan haberi olmadığı veya bunlardan ısrarla söz etmediği de görülmektedir. Sonuç olarak Berkes’e göre çağdaşlaşma meselesi ne kadar bir “aydınlanma” meselesi ise (a.g.e. , s. 533), çağdaşlaşmaya yön vereceğini düşündüğü ilkeler de o kadar XVIII. yüzyıl “aydınlanma felsefesi”nden artakalmadır.
Eserleri. Bazı Ankara Köyleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma (Ankara 1942); Propaganda Nedir? (Ankara 1942); Siyasî Partiler (İstanbul 1946); Turkish Nationalism and Western Civilisation: Selected Essays of Ziya Gökalp (London 1959); The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal 1964); İkiyüz Yıldır Neden Bocalıyoruz? (İstanbul, ts.); Batıcılık, Ulusçuluk ve Toplumsal Devrimler (İstanbul 1965); İslamcılık, Ulusçuluk, Sosyalizm (İstanbul 1969; Ankara 1975); Türk Düşününde Batı Sorunu (Ankara 1975); Türkiye İktisat Tarihi (I-II, İstanbul 1969-1970); Asya Mektupları (İstanbul 1976); Türkiye’de Çağdaşlaşma (Ankara 1975; İstanbul 1978). Ayrıca çok sayıda makalesi şu kitaplarda toplanmıştır: Atatürk ve Devrimler (İstanbul 1982); Teokrasi ve Laiklik (İstanbul 1984); Felsefe ve Toplumbilim Yazıları (İstanbul 1985).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Niyazi Berkes, Türkiye’de Çağdaşlaşma , İstanbul 1978, s. 15-30, 512-535.
a.mlf., Atatürk ve Devrimler , İstanbul 1982, s. 223-226.
a.mlf., Teokrasi ve Laiklik , İstanbul 1984, s. 12-43, 75-76, 115-116, 159-160, 171-176, 210-211.
İnan Özer, “Niyazi Berkes”, Türk Toplum Bilimcileri (nşr. Emre Kongar), İstanbul 1982, I, 251-290.
Kurtuluş Kayalı, “Hocam Niyazi Berkes’in Ardından”, TT , XI/62 (1989), s. 78.
İsmail Coşkun, “Niyazi Berkes Üzerine”, İÜ Sosyoloji Dergisi , sy. 2, İstanbul 1991, s. 49-86.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1992 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 5. cildinde, 507-509 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.