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BEŞ SANAT Skip to content Kıyas türlerinin uygulama alanları için kullanılan bir mantık terimi.
İslâm mantıkçılarına göre mantığın en önemli bölümünü kıyas teşkil eder. Kıyası oluşturan öncüllerin çeşitli isimler altında değişme ve çoğalma durumuna göre meydana gelen kıyas türlerine İslâm dünyasında muhtemelen ilk defa Fârâbî tarafından “es-sınââtü’l-hams” (Osmanlıca’da “sınâât-ı hams”) adı verilmiştir (İḥṣâʾü’l-ʿulûm , s. 28). Kıyasta öncüllerin farklı oluşu beş sanatın da birbirinden farklı olmasına yol açar. Bu farklara göre beş sanat şöyle sıralanır: Burhan, cedel, hatâbe (hitabet), şiir, safsata.
Beş sanatı kıyasın ihtiva ettiği öncüllerdeki önerme çeşitleri meydana getirdiğine göre her bir sanatın tarifini yapabilmek için öncelikle bu önerme çeşitlerini görmek gerekir. İslâm mantıkçıları önermeleri ihtiva ettikleri bilgilerin doğruluk derecesine göre başlıca yedi kısımda incelemişlerdir.
1. Yakīniyyât. Gerçeğe uygun olan, tartışmasız olarak kesin bilgi veren önermelerdir. “Bütün parçadan büyüktür” önermesi gibi. İslâm mantıkçıları yakīniyyâtı çeşitli şekillerde tarif etmişlerdir. Yaygın anlayışa göre mutlak doğru olan sadece yakınî önermeler olup aşağıda gösterilen diğer bütün önerme çeşitleri az çok ihtimalli veya gerçek dışı bilgiler ihtiva eder (bk. YAKĪNİYYÂT ).
2. Meşhûrât. Doğruluğu insanlar tarafından kabul görmüş olmasından kaynaklanan önermelerdir. Ancak buradaki “insanlar” genel anlamda olmayıp istisna her zaman söz konusudur. Bu sebeple meşhûrâtın doğruluğu “örfî” olup çağlara, bölgelere, ülkelere veya sanat ve meslek alanlarına göre değişebilir. Mantıkçılar bu önermelere çoğunlukla “Adalet iyidir”, “Yalan kötüdür” gibi ahlâkî hükümleri örnek gösterirler.
3. Müsellemât. Tartışma sırasında öne sürülen ve hasım tarafından doğruluğu benimsenen, bir defa hükme delil sayılmakla geçerlilik ve yaygınlık kazanmış olan önermelerdir. Fıkıh usulünde “âhâd haber”lerle varılan hükümler müsellemâttan sayılır ve âhâd habere itiraz edilmesi durumunda fakihlerin daha önce bu habere dayanarak hüküm vermiş olmaları delil gösterilir.
4. Makbûlât. Yalan söylemeyeceğine dair hakkında hüsnüzan beslenilen bir kimseden alınan bilgileri ifade eder (peygamberlerin yalan söylemeleri ihtimal dışı olduğundan onlardan sâdır olduğu kesin olarak bilinen haberler burhan kategorisine girer).
5. Zanniyyât. Geniş anlamda yakıniyyâtın dışındaki bütün önerme çeşitlerini kapsar; dar anlamda ise aklın tercihen kabul ettiği, ancak tersinin de doğru olması ihtimali bulunan önermeler için kullanılır (bk. ZANNİYYÂT ).
6. Muhayyelât. Doğru veya yanlış, kabul edilebilir veya edilemez olsun insanda sevinç ve huzura yahut nefret ve sıkıntıya yol açan önermelerdir.
7. Vehmiyyât. Zihnin bir gücü olan vehim veya hayalin tecrübî varlık ve olaylara bakmak ve genelleme yapmak suretiyle ürettiği önermelerdir. Meselâ cisimlerin mekânda yer kaplamasına bakarak, “Var olan her şey mekânda yer kaplar” şeklinde ileriye sürülen önerme vehmiyyâttandır (bk. VEHMİYYÂT ).
Tehânevî (Keşşâf , II, 835), dayandığı öncüllerin kesinlik değeri bakımından beş sanat arasındaki ilişkileri şöyle göstermiştir: Kıyasın öncülleri ya bir tasdik veya tasdikin dışında başka bir tesir doğurur. Eğer bu hayalî bir tesir doğuran kıyas ise buna “şiir” denir. Tasdik doğuran kıyasta ise tasdik ya zannî veya kesin olur. Bunlardan ilki “hatâbe”dir; ikincisi ise yakınî kesinlik veya yakınî olmayan bir kesinlik olabilir. Yakīnî olan “burhan”dır; yakīnî olmayanına gelince bunda ya herkesin kabulü veya sadece tartışmada muhatabın kabulü söz konusu olabilir, bunlardan ilkine “cedel”, ikincisine de “mugalata” adı verilir.
Bu bilgilerden de anlaşılacağı üzere İslâm mantıkçıları beş sanatı şu şekilde sıralamışlardır:
1. Burhan. Öncülleri yakīniyyâttan olan kıyastır. Mantıkçılara göre burhan bütün delillerin en kesin ve güvenilir olanıdır (bk. BURHAN ).
2. Cedel. Meşhûrât veya müsellemâttan sayılan öncüllerden oluşan kıyastır. Cedel bu öncüllerin kabul edilebilirlik derecesine göre bir değer taşır. Ancak İslâm mantıkçılarına göre cedel tasdike faydalı bir kıyas çeşidi olmakla birlikte aslında bununla ne bir hakikat ispat edilmiş ne de reddedilmiş olur. Cedel sanatını kullanana “cedelî” veya “mücâdil” denir (bk. CEDEL ).
3. Hatâbe. Ya sırf zanniyyâttan veya hem zanniyyât hem de makbûlâttan oluşan kıyastır (bk. HATÂBE ).
4. Şiir. Mantıkçılar şiiri kısaca muhayyelât türünden öncüllerin oluşturduğu kıyas diye tarif etmişler, ayrıca muhayyelâta da “şiirî önermeler” adını vermişlerdir (bk. ŞİİR ).
5. Safsata veya Mugalata. Safsata “genellikle öncülleri vehmiyyâttan oluşan kıyas”, mugalata ise “sûreti, maddesi veya her ikisi bakımından da geçersiz olan kıyas” diye açıklanır. Bazı mantıkçılar beşinci sanat olarak safsatayı, bazıları da mugalatayı göstermişlerdir (bk. Tehânevî, II, 1097). İslâm mantıkçıları düşünce faaliyetlerinde hatadan korunmak, demagoji yapanları susturmak, imtihanda öğrencinin zihin disiplinini sağlamak gibi gayelerle mugalata sanatını bilmenin yararlı olduğunu düşünmüşlerdir (bk. MUGALATA ).
İslâm mantığındaki beş sanatın temeli, Aristo’nun Organon adlı mantık külliyatının son beş bölümünü teşkil eden, çeşitli isimlerle Arapça’ya çevrilen ve hepsine birden “Beş Kitap” adı verilen Analytica Posteriora (Anâlûtiḳa es̱-s̱âniye , el-Burhân ), Topica (Kitâbü Mevâḍıʿi’l-cedel , el-Cedel ), De Sophisticis Elenchis (Kitâbü Tebkîti’s-sûfisṭâʾiyyîn , es-Safsaṭa ), Rhetorica (Kitâbü’l-Ḫaṭâbe ) ve De Poetica (Kitâbü’ş-Şiʿr ) adlı eserlerine dayanır.
Aristo’nun mantık külliyatı üzerinde çalışan ilk İslâm düşünürü Kindî’dir. Kindî Kemmiyyetü kütübi Arisṭoṭâlîs adlı risâlesinde Aristo’nun Organon ’unu teşkil eden sekiz kitabı tanıtmıştır. Fârâbî ise İḥṣâʾü’l-ʿulûm ’da mahiyeti bakımından Organon ’u üçe ayırmış, Kategoriler , Önermeler (el-İbâre ) ve Birinci Analitikler ’i el-Burhân ’a (II. Analitikler ’e) giriş olarak göstermiş, el-Burhân ’ı ikinci bölüm, el-Cedel , es-Safsaṭa , Kitâbü’l-Ḫaṭâbe ve Kitâbü’ş-Şiʿr ’i de üçüncü bölüm olarak saymıştır. el-Burhân ’da felsefe ve ilimlerin zaruri ilkeleri tesbit edilir; ondan sonra gelen dört kitap ise doğru ve yanlış ispat şekillerini gösterir. Fârâbî’ye göre şiir sırf hayal alanıdır, hatâbede hayal ve gerçek eşit durumda, cedelde doğru yalandan daha çok, safsatada ise yalan doğrudan daha fazladır.
Beş sanattan ilki olan burhanın temelini teşkil eden II. Analitikler ’in bir kısmı III. yüzyılda Huneyn b. İshak, tamamı ise onun oğlu İshak tarafından Grekçe’den Süryânîce’ye çevrilmiş, IV. yüzyılda Mettâ b. Yûnus bu metni Arapça’ya tercüme etmiştir. Topica ise Arapça’ya ilk defa Yahyâ b. Adî tarafından çevrilmiştir. Bundan başka Ebû Osman ed-Dımaşkī ile İbnü’l-Mukaffa‘ın oğlu İbrâhim de eserin kısmî tercümelerini yapmışlardır. Aristo’nun safsataya dair eseri Sofistica ’nın Arapça tercümelerinin başlıcaları Yahyâ b. Adî, İbn Zür‘a ve İbn Nâime tarafından yapılmıştır. Aynı konuda Kindî de el-İḥtirâz min ḫudaʿi’s-sûfisṭâʾiyye adlı bir risâle yazmıştır. Rhetorica ’ın (Kitâbü’l-Ḫaṭâbe ) bilinen ilk mütercimi Huneyn b. İshak’tır. Eser başka tercümeleri yanında Fârâbî tarafından da şerhedilmiştir. De Poetica da (Kitâbü’ş-Şiʿr ) ilki Mettâ b. Yûnus tarafından olmak üzere birkaç defa Arapça’ya tercüme edilmiş, Kindî de eseri özetlemiştir. İslâm kültür çevresinde Aristo’nun Organon ’unun öteki kitapları ve Porphyrios’un Kategoriler ’e giriş olarak yazdığı Îsâġūcî ’si ile birlikte Organon ’un burhan, cedel, safsata, hatâbe ve şiir konularındaki bölümleri çeşitli zamanlarda tercüme, tefsir, şerh ve hulâsa edilmiş, ilk tercümelerin bazıları Kindî ve Fârâbî gibi otoriteler tarafından kontrol edilmiş ve böylece İslâm dünyasında ciddi bir mantık hareketi başlamıştır.
Kindî’den itibaren Gazzâlî’ye gelinceye kadar mantık sadece felsefenin bir disiplini sayılırken ilk defa Gazzâlî’nin kelâm ile mantık arasında sağlam bir bağ kurması üzerine artık “sahih” delili “cedelî” delilden, “iknâî” delili “safsata”, “mugalata” ve “şiir”den ayıran mantık kelâm ilminin güvenilir bir aleti olarak büyük ilgi görmüştür. İbn Haldûn’un kaydettiğine göre (Muḳaddime , III, 1139-1140) İbn Sînâ’dan sonraki bazı mantıkçılar (müteahhirîn) kıyasın muhtevasını teşkil eden burhan, cedel, hatâbe, şiir ve safsata alanlarına dair beş kitabı nazarı itibara almamış veya pek az ilgi göstermişlerse de daha sonra “mantık sanatında önemli bulunan ve birer dayanak olan” bu alanlara yeniden büyük ağırlık verilmiştir. İslâm mantıkçılarının diğer felsefî disiplinlerdeki duraklamaya rağmen genel mantık çalışmalarını kesintisiz sürdürmeleri yanında beş sanatı da önemle işlemeleri, özellikle kelâm ve felsefe tartışmalarında muarızlarının görüş ve delillerindeki gerçek dışı unsurları daha iyi yakalayabilmek, kendi görüşlerini güçlü delillere dayandırarak ispatlamak, ayrıca genel olarak eğitimde başarı sağlamak gibi sebeplere bağlanmaktadır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Tehânevî, Keşşâf , I, 150, 241, 404, 454, 665, 696, 746, 748; II, 835, 940, 1095-1097, 1204, 1515, 1547.
Fârâbî, İḥṣâʾü’l-ʿulûm , s. 21-28.
İbn Sînâ, en-Necât (nşr. M. Takī Dânişpejûh), Tahran 1364 hş., s. 8-9, 115, 120-121, 126, 138-139.
a.mlf., eş-Şifâʾ IV: el-Ḳıyâs , Kahire 1964, s. 3-8.
Gazzâlî, Miʿyârü’l-ʿilm , s. 134-153.
İbn Haldûn, Muḳaddime , III, 1139-1140.
Ahmed Cevdet, Mi‘yâr-ı Sedâd , İstanbul 1303, s. 100-128.
Ali Sedad, Mîzânü’l-ukūl fi’l-mantık ve’l-usûl , İstanbul 1303, s. 103-108.
Mahmut Kaya, İslâm Kaynakları Işığında Aristoteles ve Felsefesi , İstanbul 1983, s. 100-125.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1992 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 5. cildinde, 546-547 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.