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CALDER, Norman Skip to content (1950-1998)
İslâm hukuku alanındaki çalışmalarıyla tanınan şarkiyatçı.
21 Mart 1950’de İskoçya’nın Buckie kasabasında doğdu. 1972’de Oxford Üniversitesi’ndeki Wadham College’ın Oriental Studies Bölümü’nü bitirdi. Burada Arapça ve Farsça öğrendiği yıllarda hocaları Freedy Beeston ile Richard Rudolf Walzer’den çok etkilendi. Mezuniyetinin ardından Ortadoğu’yu dolaştı. Suudi Arabistan ve İran’da dört yıl süreyle bir yandan İngilizce öğretirken bir yandan da Arapça ve Farsça’sını geliştirdi. Daha sonra Londra’ya döndü ve The School of Oriental and African Studies’de Amerikan tarihçisi John Edward Wansbrough nezaretinde doktora öğrenimine başladı. Bir diğer hocası Ann Katharine S. Lambton’un da etkisiyle İran ve Şiîlik üzerinde durdu. İmâmiyye fıkhında otorite kavramını incelediği The Structure of Authority in Imami Shiʿī Jurisprudence adlı teziyle doktora çalışmasını tamamladı. 1980’de Manchester Üniversitesi Ortadoğu Araştırmaları Bölümü’nde İslâm hukuku ve Arapça okutmanı olarak göreve başladı. Hastalığı sebebiyle emekliye ayrıldığı 1997 yılına kadar burada ders vermeye devam etti. Henüz kırk yedi yaşında iken 13 Şubat 1998’de öldü. Meslektaşları G. R. Hawting, Alexander Samely ve J. Ahmad Mojaddedi onun için bir anma kitabı yayımlamıştır (Studies in Islamic and Middle Eastern Texts and Traditions: In Memory of Norman Calder , Oxford 2001).
Kısa sayılabilecek akademik hayatında Calder, Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence adlı kitabı yanında (Oxford 1993) yirmi bir makale (tam listesi için bk. Baloğlu, sy. 10 [2007], s. 280-281), birçok ansiklopedi maddesi ve kırk üç adet kitap değerlendirmesi yazmış (tam listesi için bk. Gleave, Islamic Jurisprudence , s. 219-222), aralarında Türkler’in de bulunduğu, büyük kısmı Ortadoğu’dan gelen yirmiden fazla öğrenciye yüksek lisans ve doktora tezi danışmanlığı yapmıştır. Sünnî ve Şiî hukuk metinlerine olan geniş vukufu, derin tahlilleri, hermenötik (yorum) alanındaki yazıları, sayısız konferansları ona uluslararası bir şöhret kazandırmıştır. Ölümünden sonra öğrencisi Ahmad Mojaddedi ile yakın dostu Andrew Rippin’in birlikte yayımladıkları Classical Islam: A Sourcebook of Religious Literature adlı derleme esere (London 2003) Calder’ın adı da bir vefa borcu olarak eklenmiştir. İslâm araştırmaları alanındaki lisans öğrencileri için dinî literatürde İslâmî öğretilerin nasıl gelişip olgunlaştığını ortaya koymayı amaçlayan eser gerçekte Calder’ın bir projesiydi. Yine Mojaddedi ve Rippin, onun anısına doktora tezinin bazı bölümlerini ve bütün makalelerini derleyip neşretmiştir (Interpretation and Jurisprudence in Medieval Islam , Aldershot 2007). Eserin konu başlıkları Calder’ın ilgi alanlarına dair ipuçları sunar. Calder’ın, kavramsal çalışmalarda İslâm hukukçularınca kullanılan bazı tabir ve kavramların özellikle müfessirler tarafından nasıl anlaşılıp yorumlandığını belirlemek için yazdığı tefsire dair makaleler onun hermenötik alanındaki kabiliyet ve uzmanlığının bir sonucudur. Calder, birçok akademisyenin sıradan bir iş kabul ettiği kitap değerlendirme işine büyük önem vermiştir. Akademisyenler genellikle bir dergi editörünün önerdiği kitaba tanıtım yazarken Calder bunu kendi düşüncelerini de ortaya koymanın bir yolu olarak görmüş ve değerlendireceği eserleri bizzat seçmeye özen göstermiştir. Üçü hariç bu değerlendirmelerin tamamını, doktorasını tamamladığı üniversitenin yayın organları olan Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies ’te ve Journal of Semitic Studies ’te yayımlamıştır.
Calder’a şöhret kazandıran en önemli eser hiç şüphesiz Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence adlı kitabıdır. Hocası Wansbrough ile Ignaz Goldziher ve Joseph Schacht’ı izleyen Calder bu eserinde Hanefî, Şâfiî ve Mâlikî mezheplerine ait en erken fıkıh metinlerini derin bir tahlile tâbi tutar. Böylece okuyucuya, belli başlı fıkıh metinlerinin tahlili ışığında İslâm’ın ilk asırlarında fıkhın nasıl doğduğunu göstermeye çalışır (Berg, s. 45). Onun bu eserindeki bir başka hedefi de söz konusu metinlerin toplumsal, siyasal ve zihinsel arka planını ortaya koymak, müelliflerinin özgünlük, yaratıcılık ve yorum tekniklerini belirtmek ve nihayet hukukî normları tesbit etmektir. Akademik çevrelerde yankı uyandıran bu eseriyle Calder, erken dönem fıkıh metinleri arasından örnek olarak seçtiği bir dizi eser (el-Müdevvenetü’l-kübrâ, el-Muvaṭṭaʾ, el-Üm, Muḫtaṣarü’l-Müzenî, Kitâbü’l-Ḫarâc) ışığında bütün bir geleneğin tarihsel oluşum ve gelişimini keşif yolculuğuna çıkmıştır. Ona göre bu metinlerle sosyal gerçeklik arasında çok yakın bir ilişki bulunsa da bunlar gereği kadar dikkat çekmemiştir. Calder, “muhtasar” ve “mebsût” olarak iki gruba ayırdığı fürû-i fıkıh eserleri veya fetvâ kitaplarının, hem içinde bulunulan dönemin hukukî uygulamalarını hem de sosyal şartlarını yansıttığını düşünmüştür. Söz konusu malzemeden faydalanmak isteyen ekonomi veya toplum tarihçileri, o dönemin kendi mantık kurgusunu anlayabilmek için öncelikle kavramlarını mutlaka bilmek zorundadır (Gleave, Islamic Jurisprudence , s. 2).
Erken dönem fıkıh külliyatı arasından seçtiği eserlerin hermenötik tahlillerinden yola çıkan Calder, bu eserlerin önemli bir kısmının adı geçen hukuk ekollerinin kurucularına ait olmadığı sonucuna varmıştır. Ona göre bu eserlere zaman içerisinde bir grup fakih-âlim son şeklini vermiştir. Meselâ kendisi İmam Mâlik’e nisbet edilen el-Muvaṭṭaʾ ın aslında tamamen ona ait olmadığı, zira eserin düzeninde ve içeriğindeki ayrıntılar dikkate alındığında zaman bakımından Sahnûn’un el-Müdevvene ’sinden sonra tamamlandığı kanaatindedir. Diğer bir ifadeyle bilinenin aksine tarih açısından önce gelen el-Muvaṭṭaʾ değil el-Müdevvene ’dir (Studies in Early , s. 21; Vikor, LXXXII/1 [2003], s. 2). Ayrıca el-Muvaṭṭaʾ , Mâlikî fıkhının tam bir dökümünü vermez, eldeki malzeme derinlemesine incelendiğinde bu husus açıkça görülür. Adı geçen eserde ilgili konularda malzeme bulunduğu takdirde hadislere, bulunmadığı yerlerde ikincil otoritelerden gelen rivayetlere yer verilmiş, boşluk ve ayrıntılarda iş İmam Mâlik’e düşmüştür (Studies in Early , s. 22). Aynı şekilde el-Üm de mezhebin sonraki fakihleri arasında sürüp giden tartışmalarla bağlantılı şekilde canlı, organik metinsel gelişmenin bir ürünü olup İmam Şâfiî’nin vefatından sonra ortaya çıkmıştır. Söz konusu fakihler bu toplu fıkhî çabalarını kurucu imamlarına atfetmişlerdir. Bu metinler fakihlerin, talebelerin katıldıkları ders meclislerinde dinledikleri sözleri ve tuttukları notları kendi aralarında dolaştırıp müzakere etmelerinin ardından meydana gelmiştir. Bu dersler ve notlar umuma kapalıdır; tek başına otorite, sağlam âlim mefhumu henüz oluşmadığından tutulan notlar her zaman tashihe açıktır ve tam bir ürün olabilmeleri için olgunlaşma sürecine ihtiyaç vardır. Bu sürecin ardından eserler mezhebin kurucularına atfedilir. Dolayısıyla bu eserlerin olgunlaşması II. (VIII.) yüzyılın sonlarını ve III. (IX.) yüzyılın başlarını bulmuştur (a.g.e. , 7. bölüm; krş. Ahmed El Shamsy, CXXXII/2 [2012], s. 199; Abdülhakîm el-Matrûdî, XLIV/1 [1430/2009], s. 148). Ancak Hintli âlim Muhammed el-A‘zamî, Calder’ı seküler tarihçilerin izinden gittiği ve hadis literatürü ile Rabbânî literatür arasında ayırım yapmadığı gerekçesiyle eleştirmiştir. A‘zamî, Wansbrough ve Calder’ın, hadislerle Kur’an’ın da dahil olduğu erken döneme ait İslâmî literatürün iki asrı aşan bir süre zarfında bütün müslüman toplumu tarafından teşkil edildiği ve geliştirildiği şeklindeki görüşlerinin gerçeğe uymadığını söylemiştir (The History of the Qur’anic Text , s. 337). Aynı şekilde Calder’ın adı geçen eseri Vâil Hallâk (Wael Hallaq) ve Harald Motzki gibi şarkiyatçılar tarafından da eleştirilmiştir (Abdülhakîm el-Matrûdî, XLIV/1 [1430/2009], s. 156 vd.).
Calder, tedvin ve gelişme dönemlerinde kuramsal anlamda yoğun zihinsel faaliyet gösteren hukukçuların teori ile uygulama arasındaki mesafenin açılmaması için ciddi gayret sarfettiklerini düşünür. İctihad kapısının hiçbir zaman kapanmadığını önemle vurgulayan müellife göre bugün mesafe birtakım sebepler yüzünden açılmış durumdadır. Dolayısıyla müslümanların karşılaştıkları yeni hukukî sorunların çözümünde eldeki teorik bilgiden fazla istifade edilememektedir. Bunun önemli sebeplerinden biri, büyük müctehid imamların ardından gelen fakihlerin geleneğe sıkıca bağlanmaları ve taklidi sürekli teşvik etmeleridir. Onlar Kur’an âyetlerini ve sünneti öncekilerin yaptığı gibi yorumlamak yerine geleneği izlemeyi tercih etmişler, zihinsel kabiliyet ve enerjilerini önceki eserleri şerhetme yolunda harcamışlardır. Bu durum fakihlerin kapasite ve beceri eksikliğinden kaynaklanmamaktadır, böyle yapmakla onlar geleneğe olan sadakat ve bağlılıklarını göstermeyi amaçlamışlardır (BSOAS , LXIII/2 [2000], s. 217).
Taklid kavramına özel bir önem atfeden Calder bu çerçevede özgün görüşler ileri sürer ve taklidin körü körüne bir itaat ve bağlılık olarak görülmediğine dikkat çeker. Bu kavramla birlikte “intisap, takyîd ve ictihâd fi’l-mezheb” kavramlarının İslâm tarihindeki fıkhî tecrübenin oluşumuna katkıda bulundukları gibi bir mezhebe bağlılığın açıklanması ve meşrû kılınmasında da ciddi rol oynadıklarını söyler. Ona göre mezhebin kurucu imamı, kuralları doğrudan vahiy metninden çıkarma yetkisine sahip yegâne bağımsız müctehiddir. Kurucu imamın bu yetki ve becerisinde sembolünü bulan toplumun tecrübesi de taklid adı altında geleneğe dahil edilir. Çoğunlukla körü körüne bağlılık şeklinde anlaşıldığından reddedilen taklid aslında geçmişin tecrübesini bir tür dikkate almak, şimdiki zamanı geçmişin tecrübesiyle birleştirmek ve ona dinamik bir yön vermekten ibaret olup bunu icra etmek de gelecek nesillerin görevidir. Bundan dolayı kavram olarak taklid, mutlak itaat ve boyun eğme anlamını içerse de aynı zamanda birer fakih olan müftüleri aslî metinlere müracaat etmekten kurtaran bir niteliğe sahiptir. Kurucu imamın bağımsız yorumu söz konusu fıkhî meseleyi bir karara bağlamış ve sonraki yorumlar için bir temel oluşturmuştur. Bu da dikkatli bakıldığında otoritenin körü körüne olmayan bir tasdiki anlamına gelmektedir. Zira müftü, bir konuda kurucu imamın görüşünü olduğu gibi aktarmak suretiyle bir taraftan usul kaideleri çerçevesinde aynı imamın beceri ve başarısını teyit etmiş, bir taraftan da geleneğin sürekliliğini sağlamış olmaktadır (Islamic Law and Society , III/2 [1996], s. 162).
Calder’ın eserleri incelendiği takdirde, görüşlerinin arka planında Julius Wellhausen ve Rudolf Karl Bultmann gibi ünlü şarkiyatçıların yanı sıra Ignaz Goldziher, Joseph Schacht ve hocası John E. Wansbrough’nın metot ve fikirlerinin bulunduğu görülür. Nitekim Calder meşhur eserinin önsözünde bu şahsiyetleri zikreder (Studies in Early , s. ix). Aynı şekilde metodolojik alt yapısının gelişmesinde, yüzlerce esere yazarlık veya editörlük yapan Yahudilik uzmanı Jacob Neusner’e de çok şey borçlu olduğunu belirtir. Zira Neusner’in Talmud’a uyguladığı inceleme metodu Calder’ın İslâm hukukuna dair araştırmalarında önünü açmıştır (Melchert, s. 306). Yine yıllarca birlikte çalıştığı arkadaşları Philip Alexander, Colin Imber ve daha sonra Alexander Samely ile çeşitli konularda giriştiği akademik tahliller, onun ufkunun genişlemesinde ve eserlerinin olgunlaşmasında önemli rol oynamıştır. Calder yüksek lisans ve doktora derslerinde İslâm hukukçularına duyduğu hayranlığı gizlemez, onların çok zeki insanlar olduklarını söylerdi. Öyle ki, “Ben Schacht olmak yerine Serahsî olmayı tercih ederim” diyecek kadar açık sözlüydü.
Norman Calder, N. J. Coulson’un da yaptığı gibi özellikle Sünnî hukuk metinlerine uyguladığı metinsel-tarihsel metoduyla ün salan, fikirleri “aşılamaz” kabul edilen Joseph Schacht’ın bazı görüşlerine itiraz etmiştir (meselâ bk. Zeitschrift für Geschichte , s. 264). Dolayısıyla bu iki entelektüelin Schacht’ın tahtını salladıkları söylenir. Bununla birlikte Calder’ın bilhassa fıkha dair eserlerinde Schacht’ın etkisinde kaldığı görülür ki bu etki onun Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence adlı eserinde oldukça bârizdir (Peters, XXVI/4 [1994], s. 699; ayrıca bk. Maghen, X/3 [2003], s. 276-277). Calder, fikirlerinden etkilendiği hocası Wansbrough gibi metinler arasında tarihî ve dinî ayırım yapmamış, Tanrı’yı bilmenin metinleri okuma ve yorumlama yeteneğine bağlı olduğuna inanmış, hepsini edebî metin kategorisinde değerlendirerek aynı tahlil metodunu uygulamıştır. Wansbrough ve Calder bu metinleri kurtuluşa giden yolun farklı ifadeleri olarak görmüşler, dolayısıyla gerçeği kavramanın ancak bu metinleri iyi anlamakla mümkün olabileceğine inanmışlardır (Toprak, sy. 4 [2004], s. 198).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA :
N. Calder, Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence , Oxford 1993; a.mlf., “The Significance of the Term Imām in Early Islamic Jurisprudence”, Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften , I, Frankfurt 1984, s. 253-264; a.mlf., “Al-Nawawī’s Typology of Muftīs and its Significance for a General Theory of Islamic Law”, Islamic Law and Society , III/2, Leiden 1996, s. 137-164; a.mlf., “The ʿUqūd Rasm al-Muftī of Ibn ʿĀbidīn”, BSOAS , LXIII/2 (2000), s. 215-228; H. Berg, The Development of Exegesis in Early Islam: The Authenticity of Muslim Literature from the Formative Period , Richmond 2000, s. 45-48; Christopher Melchert, “The Early History of Islamic Law”, Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins (ed. H. Berg), Leiden 2003, s. 291-324; M. Mustafa al-A’zami, The History of the Qur’ānic Text , Leicester 2003, s. 337; R. Gleave, “Introduction”, N. Calder, Islamic Jurisprudence in the Classical Era (ed. Colin Imber) içinde, Cambridge 2010, s. 1-21; a.mlf., “Afterword”, a.e. , s. 201-222; a.mlf., “Norman Calder (1950-1998)”, Islamic Law and Society , V/3 (1998), s. 283-284; R. Peters, “Norman Calder, Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence”, IJMES , XXVI/4 (1994), s. 699-701; Ze’ev Maghen, “Dead Tradition: Joseph Schacht and the Origins of Popular Practice”, Islamic Law and Society , X/3 (2003), s. 276-347; Knut S. Vikor, “The Truth About Cats and Dogs: The Historicity of Early Islamic Law”, Historisk Tidsskrift , LXXXII/1, Oslo 2003, s. 1-17; Mehmet Toprak, “Norman Calder”, İslam Hukuku Araştırmaları Dergisi , sy. 4, Konya 2004, s. 197-201; Adnan Bülent Baloğlu, “Yirminci Yüzyıl Sonları Batılı İslâm Araştırmacılığının Meşhur Bir Siması: Norman Calder (1950-1998)”, a.e. , sy. 10 (2007), s. 277-286; Abdülhakîm el-Matrûdî, “Târîḫu teʾlîfi’l-meṣâdiri’l-fiḳhiyyeti’l-ḳadîme ʿinde’l-müsteşriḳ Norman Calder ve reddü baʿżi’l-müsteşriḳīn ʿaleyh”, ed-Dirâsâtü’l-İslâmiyye , XLIV/1, İslâmâbâd 1430/2009, s. 145-178; Ahmed El Shamsy, “Al-Shafi’ī’s Written Corpus: A Source of Critical Study”, JAOS , CXXXII/2 (2012), s. 199-220.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 2016 yılında İstanbul’da basılan (gözden geçirilmiş 2. basım) EK-1. cildinde, 240-242 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.