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CÂLÎNÛS Skip to content (ö. 200 [?])
İslâm tıbbını etkileyen ünlü Grek tabip ve filozofu.
Asıl adı Galenos olup bu isim İslâmî literatürde Câlînûs şeklinde şöhret bulmuştur. İbn Ebû Usaybia Câlînûs kelimesinin “sakin, doğru yolu gösteren” veya “faziletli” anlamlarına geldiğini belirtir (ʿUyûnü’l-enbâʾ , s. 129). Çağdaş Batı dillerinde Câlînûs adı Galen veya Galien şekillerinde yazılmaktadır.
Doğum tarihi konusunda modern araştırmacılar gibi müslüman müellifler de farklı tesbitlerde bulunmuşlardır. Bu sonuncular içinde doğruya en yakın olanı İbn Ebû Usaybia’nın tesbitidir. Bu müellif Câlînûs’un doğumunun, Trayinus (Trajan) adlı Roma imparatorunun (98-117) tahta geçişinin onuncu yılında olduğunu söyler. Buna göre Câlînûs milâdî 108 yılında doğmuş olmalıdır. Modern araştırmalara göre ise yaklaşık 130’da doğmuştur. Câlînûs’un doğum yeri Batı Anadolu’daki Pergamon’dur (bugünkü Bergama). İbn Ebû Usaybia’nın Câlînûs’un kendi eseri olan Fî Merâtibi ḳırâʾati kütübih ’ten (Sezgin, III, 79) aktardığına göre bir mimar olan babası kendisine on beş yaşına kadar aritmetik ve geometri öğretmiş, ardından onu mantık, sonra da tıp tahsiline yöneltmiştir.
Câlînûs Bergama, Smyrna (İzmir), Corinthos ve İskenderiye’de tıp öğrenimi yaptı. Daha sonra Roma’ya giderek Vali Boethius’un himayesinde anatomi çalışmalarında bulundu, ayrıca çoğu Aristocu filozoflardan oluşan felsefecilerle temasları oldu. Roma’dan Bergama’ya döndü. Kısa süre sonra, İbn Ebû Usaybia’nın Antonius lakabıyla andığı Marcus Aurelius tarafından Adriya denizinin üst kesimindeki Aquilée (Ar. Akulyâ) şehrine çağrıldı; oradan Roma’ya getirildi ve kralın küçük oğlu Commodus’ün özel hekimi olarak görevlendirildi. Antonius’un bu sırada çıktığı Cermen seferlerinin planlanandan uzun sürmesi Câlînûs’a ilmî faaliyet için gerekli boş zamanı sağlamış, tıp ve felsefe konularında dersler verip çok sayıda eser yazmış, fakat 191 yılında çıkan bir yangında kaleme aldığı birçok kitap yanmıştır. Câlînûs Fî Nefyi’l-ġam adlı eserinde söz konusu Roma yangınında Aristo ve Anaxagoras gibi ünlü filozoflara ait müellif hattı yazmaların da yok olduğunu kaydetmektedir (İbn Ebû Usaybia, s. 126).
Câlînûs’un bundan sonraki hayatı hakkında fazla bilgi yoktur. Ölüm yeri olarak Mısır’ın doğusundaki Ferma veya Sicilya gibi farklı bölgeler gösterilmiştir. Modern araştırmalara göre ise Roma veya Bergama’da 200 yılı dolaylarında vefat ettiği sanılmaktadır (ER , V, 463).
Antikçağ tıbbında metot açısından aklî istidlâl yanlıları (ashâbü’l-kıyâs) ve deney-gözlem yanlıları (ashâbü’t-tecribe) şeklinde iki farklı anlayış mevcuttur. Hipokrat ile Câlînûs birinci anlayışın temsilcileri olarak bilinmektedir. Kökleri Asklepios Mâbedi’ne kadar uzanan bu telakkiye göre tıp bir Tanrı vergisidir ve bunda ilhamın payı büyüktür. Dolayısıyla sadece gözlem ve deneyle tıbbın künhüne ulaşmak mümkün değildir. Nitekim Câlînûs, Hipokratik tıp yemini üzerine yazdığı ve İslâm dünyasında “Fî Tefsîri Kitâbi’l-Eymân li-İbuḳrâṭ” (Sezgin, III, 123) adıyla bilinen yorumunda açıkça tıbbın insanlığa Allah tarafından ilham edildiğini, bu sebeple aynı ilâhî kaynağa bağlı olan felsefe ile eşit değerde olduğunu söylemektedir. İkinci anlayış mensupları ise tıbbın gelişip ilerlemesi için empirizmin vazgeçilmez bir şart olduğunu savunmuş ve bu fikir tıp tarihinde hayli etkili olmuştur. Onun tanınmış takipçilerinden İskenderiyeli Yahyâ en-Nahvî, daha önce tıp sahasına sofistler hâkimken Câlînûs’un onların aksine bir gelenek olan Hipokrat tıbbını ihya ettiğini yazmaktadır (İbn Ebû Usaybia, s. 109).
Câlînûs, Hipokratik tıp ilmi ve ahlâkına sıkı sıkıya bağlı olmakla birlikte tecrübenin önemini inkâr etmemiş, bizzat Hipokrat ve takipçilerinin tecrübî metoda yoğun şekilde başvurduklarını ifade ederek Hipokrat tıbbına dair gelenekleşmiş yorumu aşmaya çalışmıştır. Câlînûs’a göre tıp sürekli gözlem ve tecrübeyle geliştirilip temellendirilen bir teoridir; tıp hakkındaki bilgilerimiz yalnızca geleneksel teoriden istidlâlle doğmaz; yeni tecrübeler yeni bilgilerin de kaynağıdır. Tıp ilmi tecrübesiz ilerleyemez (Rosenthal, s. 189-191). Nitekim müslümanlar da Câlînûs’un Hipokrat tıbbını yeni yorumlarla zenginleştirmekle kalmayıp tamamen kendine has tecrübî ve klinik gözleme dayalı birikimler oluşturduğunun farkındaydılar. Meselâ onun Fî Taḳdimeti’l-maʿrife (Sezgin, III, 114, 123), Fî Ṣınâʿati’ṭ-ṭıb (a.g.e. , III, 80-81) ve Fî Miḥneti’ṭ-ṭabîbi’l-fâżıl (a.g.e. , III, 125) adlı eserlerinde yer alan farmakolojik buluşlarını, orijinal tedavi şekillerini ve anatomi uygulamalarını biliyorlardı. Anatomi incelemelerinin sonuçları XVI-XVII. yüzyılların anatomi bilginleri için bile başvuru kaynağı olabilmiştir. Fizyoloji alanındaki en önemli buluşu, İskenderiye tıp okulunun 400 yıldan beri kabul ettiğinin aksine, damarlarda hava değil kanın dolaştığını ortaya koyması ve küçük kan dolaşımını kısmen kavramış olmasıdır.
Câlînûs’un tabiat görüşünü büyük ölçüde Aristo’dan aldığı bilinmektedir. Özellikle dört unsur ve dört tabiat doktrinini ahlât-ı erbaa kavramıyla ustaca irtibatlandırması, tabiatın boşluk kabul etmediğine, kâinatta bir gayenin mevcut olduğuna inanması hep Aristocu temayüllerdir. Gaye-sebep telakkisinin yer aldığı Fî Menâfiʿi’l-aʿżâʾ (a.g.e. , III, 106-107) adlı eserinde Tanrı’nın her organı görevine en uygun şekilde yarattığını savunmuş, bununla gayeyi belirleyen ve eşyada ona uygunluğu temin edenin Tanrı olduğu inancını temellendirmek istemiştir.
St. Peter’den beri İtalya’da yayılan Hıristiyanlığa sempati beslemiş olan Câlînûs yine de bu dine girmemiştir. İbn Ebû Usaybia, Câlînûs’un Fî Tefsîri Kitâbi Eflâṭûn fi’s-siyâseti’l-medeniyye adlı Politeia şerhinden iktibasla onun hıristiyanlar hakkındaki gözlemlerini aktarmaktadır. Buna göre çağdaşı olan hıristiyanlar, mûcize inancından kaynaklanan sembolizme dayalı bir ahde bağlı, ölümden korkmayan, iffetli, içlerinde kadınlar olduğu halde cinsî ilişkide bulunmayan, yiyip içmede kontrollü, adalete düşkün insanlardır ve felsefî ahlâka uygun hareket etmektedirler. Câlînûs yahudiler hakkında ise genellikle eleştirici bir tutum takınmıştır. Onun Kitâb-ı Mukaddes’i okuduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Kâinat görüşü itibariyle Hıristiyanlık ve Stoacılık arasında yer alır. Kendisi bir yandan Stoacı tabiat kanunu fikrini kabul ederken Stoacı astrolojiyi reddetmekte, öte yandan ilâhî hidayet ve tek tanrı inancına rağmen mûcizeyi inkâr etmektedir. Ancak onun benimsediği Tanrı yaratan değil yapan yani mimar Tanrı (demiurgos) olup bu inancın kaynağı bir telhisini yazdığı Eflâtun’un Timaios adlı eseridir. Câlînûs, “Tekvîn”e dayandırılan yoktan yaratma (creatio ex nihilo) fikrini de eleştirmekten geri durmamış, birçok Romalı’nın yaptığının aksine Hıristiyanlığı bâtıl bir mezhep olarak görme yerine hatalar ihtiva eden bir felsefî sistem şeklinde değerlendirmiştir. Hatta onun monoteist felsefesi hıristiyan teologlar üzerinde etkisini göstermekte gecikmemiş, Bizanslı Theodotus önderliğinde bir grup Anadolulu teolog, Câlînûs’un etkisiyle Hıristiyanlığı felsefî terimlerle ortaya koydukları için kilise tarafından aforoz edilmiştir (ER , V, 465).
Ancak onun gerçek hayranları İskenderiye okulu mensuplarıdır. İslâm’ın ortaya çıkışından önce aralarında Yahyâ en-Nahvî’nin de bulunduğu İskenderiye okuluna bağlı hekim ve düşünürler Câlînûs’un eserleri üzerinde inceleme, ihtisar ve tefsir şeklinde yoğun çalışmalar yapmışlardır. İslâm dünyasında kısaca Cevâmiʿu’l-İskenderâniyyîn olarak anılan bu külliyat Batı’da Latince Summaria Alexandrinorum unvanıyla tanınır.
Câlînûs’un ahlât-ı erbaaya dayalı hümorolojisi oldukça erken dönemde konuyla ilgili yeni teliflere zemin hazırlamıştır. Meselâ Câbir b. Hayyân’ın risâlelerinde Câlînûs’un tıp teorisinin bir özeti yer almaktadır. Bu özette önce dört unsur, dört keyfiyet ve dört mevsim arasında irtibat kurulmakta, ardından ahlât-ı erbaa yoğunluk, hareket ve renk özelliklerine göre bu şemaya dahil edilmektedir. Yine Câbir b. Hayyân’ın risâlelerinde, Câlînûs tıbbına uygun olarak, mizaçlar arasındaki fizyolojik dengenin mevcudiyeti sağlığın, bu dengenin bozulması ise hastalığın veya ölümün sebebi sayılmaktadır (Muḫtâru Resâʾili Câbir b. Ḥayyân , s. 49-52). En eski İslâm tıp eserlerinden biri olan Firdevsü’l-ḥikme ’nin yazarı Ali b. Rabben et-Taberî, Câlînûs tıbbındaki bu mizaçlar teorisini etraflıca aktarmıştır (Firdevsü’l-ḥikme , s. 42-43). Câlînûs’un bütün hayatî fonksiyonları “pneuma” (ruh) kavramına bağlayan sistemini takip eden müslüman fizyologlar, maddeden ayrı bir cevher olarak nefs ile karıştırılmaması gereken ve kalbin kıvrımlarında latif bir cisim olarak tasavvur edilen “ruh” kavramını benimsemişlerdir (S. H. Nasr, s. 159-162).
Câlînûs, Eflâtun psikolojisindeki nefsin şehvet, öfke ve akıl güçlerini de sırasıyla karaciğer, kalp ve beynin mizacıyla özdeşleştirdiği, böylece organların mizaçlarındaki bozulmanın onlarla ilişkili bulunan ruhun da ölümü olduğunu ileri sürdüğü Fî Enne ḳuva’n-nefs tevâbiʿ li-mizâci’l-beden adlı eserinde (s. 183-186) bedenî özelliklerin ahlâkla ilişkisi üzerinde de durarak eğitimin karakter formasyonundaki rolünün sanıldığından daha az olduğunu ve yalnızca insandaki gizli özellik ve kabiliyetlerin açığa çıkmasına veya çıkmamasına yardım ettiğini savunur. İslâm dünyasında tanınan ve günümüze bir muhtasarıyla ulaşan Kitâbü’l-Aḫlâḳ adlı eserinde de yine insanın mizacı ve tabii eğilimleriyle ahlâk (karakter) arasında ilişki kurmakta, tabiatı gereği eğitimi kabul etmeyen şehvet gücünü öfke gücünün de yardımıyla akıl tarafından bastırmanın mümkün olduğunu belirtmektedir. Buna göre eğitimi kabul eden öfke gücü ve akıldır. Ancak Câlînûs şundan emindir: İnsan ruhunun hazlara yönelip elemlerden kaçınmasının, zararlıdan uzaklaşıp faydalıya yönelmesinin, kısaca psikolojik motivasyonların aklî bir boyutu yoktur. Çünkü henüz aklı gelişmemiş çocuklarda ve akıldan yoksun hayvanlarda da ahlâkî davranışlar gözlenmektedir. Böyle bir tabii ahlâk kavramıyla aklî faaliyeti birbirinden ayırmak ve tabii eğilimleri aklın kontrolüne vermek gerekir. Esasen Câlînûs’un bütün meselesi huyların kaynağının akıl olmadığını, insanları iyiliğe veya kötülüğe sevkeden motifin tabii olduğunu ortaya koymaktır. Huy o kadar tabiidir ki sonradan kazandığımız alışkanlıklarımız bile ikinci tabiat olarak adlandırılmalıdır (Câlînûs, [Muḫtaṣar min] Kitâbi’l-Aḫlâḳ , s. 25, 30, 42, 47).
Câlînûs İslâm dünyasında gerek tıp gerekse ahlâk teorileri bakımından hayli tesirli olmuştur. Ancak “İslâm dünyasının Câlînûs’u” lakabıyla tanınan (İbn Ebû Usaybia, s. 415) ve el-Ḥâvî adlı eserinde onun kitaplarından çok faydalanan Ebû Bekir er-Râzî’nin Kitâbü’ş-Şükûk ʿalâ Câlînûs adlı bir eleştiri kaleme almış olması, onun İslâm dünyasında mutlak bir otoriteye sahip olmadığının erken işaretlerinden biri sayılabilir. Bu eleştiri Câlînûs’un hem tıbbî hem de felsefî görüşlerine yöneliktir. Klinik gözlemciliğiyle tanınan Râzî, Rey ve Bağdat hastahanelerindeki bazı gözlemlerinin Câlînûs’un tıp külliyatına uymadığını belirtmektedir. Râzî kendi birikiminin Câlînûs’unkinden fazla olduğunun kesin olarak farkındadır. Ayrıca Râzî’ye göre Câlînûs teorik hatalar da yapmıştır. Meselâ onun soğutucu veya hararet verici şeylerin, bunların tesiriyle soğutulmuş veya ısıtılmış şeylerden daha soğuk veya sıcak olduğu şeklindeki formülü tıp bakımından her zaman geçerli değildir. Zira tecrübeler göstermiştir ki ılık bir meşrubat, hastalık durumunda kendi hararetinden daha fazla bir hararete yol açabilir. Râzî’ye göre ayrıca Câlînûs’un görme teorisi, onun matematik izahlara aşırı düşkünlüğü sebebiyle kusurludur. En önemlisi de Râzî’nin, Câlînûs’un insan nefsini cismanî addeden yaklaşımını reddetmesidir (DSB , VI, 325-326). Ancak Câlînûs’un tıptaki otoritesini muhafaza etmek isteyen tıp çevreleri bu eleştiriye reddiyeler yazmışlardır. Bunların en ünlüsü, Ali b. Rıdvân’ın Fî Ḥalli Şükûki’r-Râzî ʿalâ kütübi Câlînûs adlı kitabıdır. Aynı başlığı taşıyan diğer iki reddiye ise İbn Sînâ’nın İbn Ebû Sâdık en-Nîsâbûrî adlı bir öğrencisiyle Ebü’l-Alâ İbn Zühr (Latin dünyasındaki Avenzoar) adlı Endülüslü bir hekime aittir (İbn Ebû Usaybia, s. 461, 519).
Kitâbü’ş-Şükûk , yahudi filozof Mûsâ b. Meymûn’a da Câlînûs’u eleştirme fikrini ilham etmiştir. Râzî’nin eserini güya sırf felsefî açıdan yapılmış bir eleştiri şeklinde değerlendiren İbn Meymûn, kendi eserinin ondan farklı olarak aynı zamanda tıbbî amaç taşıdığını belirtir (Mehdî Muhakkık, s. 14). İbn Meymûn Fuṣûlü Mûsâ fi’ṭ-ṭıb (Fuṣûlü’l-Ḳurṭubî ) adlı eserinde Câlînûs’un kırktan fazla çelişkisini ortaya koyduğu iddiasındadır ve onu felsefî meselelerde bilgisizlikle itham etmektedir. Buna karşılık Câlînûs külliyatı konusunda İshak b. Ali er-Ruhâvî gibi uzman hekimler yetişmiş, Râzî ve İbn Rüşd onun başlıca tıbbî eserlerine ihtisarlar yazmış, ünlü hekim-filozof İbn Sînâ bile onun tıp teorisinden faydalandığını belirtmiştir ki bütün bunlar Câlînûs’un İslâm tıbbındaki önemini ortaya koymaktadır. Onun İslâm ahlâk ilminde karakter formasyonu konusundaki tesirleri de ayrıca kayda değer mahiyettedir.
Eserleri. Câlînûs’a 400’den fazla eser nisbet edilmekteyse de bunların çoğu kayıptır. 140 civarında eseri tamamen veya kısmen Grekçe orijinalleriyle günümüze ulaşmıştır. Tıbba dair on dokuz eserinin şüpheli, kırk beşinin nisbetinin ise uydurma olduğu kabul edilmektedir. Câlînûs’a ait eserlerin eksiksiz bir Latince koleksiyonu C. G. Kühn tarafından Claudii Galeni Opera Omnia başlığıyla yirmi cilt halinde neşredilmiştir (Lipsiae 1821-1833; 2. bs. Hildesheim 1964-1965). Onun eserlerinden yapılmış iktibaslardan oluşan bir İngilizce antoloji Arthur John Brock tarafından Greek Medicine adlı bir çalışma içinde (London 1929) yayımlanmıştır. Bazı eserleri de müstakil olarak İngilizce’ye tercüme edilerek neşredilmiştir. Tatmin edici bulunmamakla birlikte George Sarton’un Galen of Pergamon (Lawrence, Kansas Press 1954) adlı monografisi toplu bir değerlendirme bakımından kayda değerdir. Owsei Temkin’in Galenism: Rise and Decline of a Medical Philosophy (Ithaca, N. Y., 1973) adlı çalışması Câlînûs’un tıp tarihindeki etkilerini konu edinmiştir.
Câlînûs’un Grekçe orijinalleri kayıp olan bazı tıbbî ve felsefî eserleri Arapça ve Latince tercümeleriyle günümüze ulaşmıştır. Huneyn b. İshak’ın, Halife Mütevekkil-Alellah’ın dostu ve kâtibi Ali b. Yahyâ el-Müneccim (ö. 275/888-89) için yazdığı Risâletü Ḥuneyn b. İsḥâḳ ilâ ʿAlî b. Yaḥyâ fî ẕikri mâ türcime min kütübi Câlînûs bi-ʿilmihî ve baʿżi mâ lem yütercem adlı zamanımıza ulaşmış bir eseri, Câlînûs’un Arapça’ya çevrilmiş olan kitaplarının listesini ihtiva eder. Huneyn b. İshak, Câlînûs’un tıp ve felsefe kitaplarını iki makale halinde tanıtan Pinax (Ar. Fîneks ) adlı fihristin orijinalini görmüş, bunu hem Süryânîce’ye hem de Arapça’ya çevirmiş, fihristte zikredilmeyen eserleri de üçüncü bir liste halinde Pinax çevirisine ilâve etmiştir. Yine Huneyn b. İshak’ın Risâle ’sinden anlaşıldığına göre bu ünlü mütercim, Benî Mûsâ ailesinden Muhammed ve Ahmed’in himayesiyle, içlerinde İshak b. Huneyn, Hubeyş b. Hasan, İstefan b. Bâsil, Îsâ b. Ali gibi isimlerin yer aldığı mütercim kadrosuyla birlikte Câlînûs’un 129 eserini Süryânîce nüshalardan Arapça’ya tercüme etmiştir (Huneyn b. İshak, Risâle , s. 149-179). Huneyn b. İshak’ın bu risâlesi Max Meyerhof’un ayrıntılı bir incelemesine konu olmuş (bk. bibl.), yazar onun verdiği listedeki 129 eseri Latince’deki adlarıyla sıralamıştır. Câlînûs hakkında en geniş bilgiyi aktaran İbn Ebû Usaybia ise Huneyn’in adı geçen sahih ve şüpheli eserler bibliyografyasını aktarmakta ve daha sonra birçok şüpheli eserin adını da bu listeye ilâve etmektedir (ʿUyûnü’l-enbâʾ , s. 149). Muhammed Zübeyr el-Bâbâ, Câlînûs’un eserlerini Hipokratik şerhler, anatomi ve embriyolojiye dair eserler, fizyolojiye dair eserler, teşhise dair eserler, tedavi şekillerine dair eserler, farmakolojik eserler, hıfzıssıhhaya dair eserler şeklinde tasnif eden bir liste vermektedir (bk. bibl.). Câlînûs’un özellikle tıbbî eserlerine dair ayrıntılı bir bibliyografya Fuat Sezgin’in kitabında mevcuttur (GAS , III, 68-140). Aynı eser, İslâm dünyasında Cevâmiʿu’l-İskenderâniyyîn adıyla anılan Câlînûs koleksiyonunu da tanıtmaktadır (III, 140-150).
Câlînûs’un Fi’l-Aḫlâḳ , Fi’l-Âdât , Fî Enne’l-aḫyâre mine’n-nâs ḳad yentefiʿûne bi-aʿżâʾihim , Fî Enne ḳuva’n-nefs tevâbiʿ li-mizâci’l-beden , Fî Enne’l-muḥarrike’l-evvel lâ yeteḥarrek , Kitâbü Ârâʾi Buḳrâṭ ve Felâṭûn gibi bazı başlıklarla anılan felsefî eserleri de İslâm dünyasında belirli bir ilgi ve tesire sahip olmuştur. Bunlardan bazıları muhtasar halde de olsa günümüze ulaşmış ve neşredilmiştir (bk. bibl.).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Câlînûs, [Muḫtaṣar min] Kitâbi’l-Aḫlâḳ (nşr. P. Kraus, Mecelletü Külliyyeti’l-âdâb , V/1, Kahire 1937 içinde), s. 25, 30, 42, 47.
a.mlf., [Muḫtaṣaru Maḳāli Câlînûs] Fi’l-Ḥas̱ ʿalâ taʿallümi’l-ʿulûm ve’ṣ-ṣınâʿât (nşr. Abdurrahman Bedevî, Dirâsât ve nuṣûṣ fi’l-felsefe ve’l-ʿulûm ʿinde’l-ʿArab , Beyrut 1981 içinde), s. 187-189.
a.mlf., Fî Enne ḳuva’n-nefs tevâbiʿ li-mizâci’l-beden (nşr. A. Bedevî, a.e. içinde), s. 183-186.
Câbir b. Hayyân, Muḫtâru Resâʾili Câbir b. Ḥayyân (nşr. P. Kraus), Kahire 1354, s. 49-52.
Ali b. Rabben et-Taberî, Firdevsü’l-ḥikme (nşr. M. Z. Sıddîqî), Berlin 1928, s. 42-43.
Huneyn b. İshak, Risâletü Ḥuneyn b. İsḥâḳ ilâ ʿAlî b. Yaḥyâ fî ẕikri mâ türcime min kütübi Câlînûs bi-ʿilmihî ve baʿżi mâ lem yütercem (nşr. Abdurrahman Bedevî, Dirâsât ve nuṣûṣ fi’l-felsefe ve’l-ʿulûm ʿinde’l-ʿArab içinde), s. 149-179.
İshak b. Huneyn, Târîḫu’l-eṭıbbâʾ ve’l-felâsife (nşr. F. Seyyid), Beyrut 1405/1985, s. 152, 156.
İbn Cülcül, Ṭabaḳātü’l-eṭıbbâʾ ve’l-ḥükemâʾ (İshak b. Huneyn, Târîḫu’l-eṭıbbâʾ ve’l-felâsife içinde), s. 41-50.
İbnü’n-Nedîm, el-Fihrist (Teceddüd) , s. 347-350.
İbnü’l-Kıftî, İḫbârü’l-ʿulemâʾ , s. 86.
İbn Ebû Usaybia, ʿUyûnü’l-enbâʾ , s. 12-13, 20, 30, 40, 106-107, 109-130, 149, 157, 295, 324-325, 342, 415, 461, 519, 532.
Sezgin, GAS , III, 68-150.
R. Walzer, Greek into Arabic: Essays on Islamic Philosophy , Oxford 1962, s. 142-174.
a.mlf., “D̲j̲ālinūs”, EI2 (İng.) , II, 402-403.
F. Rosenthal, The Classical Heritage in Islam (trc. E. Marmorstein – J. Marmorstein), London 1975, s. 187-192.
Sarton, Introduction , I, 288-307.
S. H. Nasr, İslâm ve İlim: İslâm Medeniyetinde Aklî İlimlerin Tarihi ve Esasları (trc. İlhan Kutluer), İstanbul 1989, s. 159-162.
İlhan Kutluer, İslâm Felsefesi Tarihinde Ahlak İlminin Teşekkülü (doktora tezi, 1989), MÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, nr. 647, s. 40-42, 146-147, 163, 166, 171, 216, 276, 282-283.
Max Meyerhof, “New Light on Hunain Ibn Ishaq and his Period”, ISIS , VIII (1926), s. 685-724.
a.mlf. – Joseph Schacht, “Maimonides Against Galen on Philosophy and Cosmogony”, Mecelletü Külliyyeti’l-âdâb , V/1, Kahire 1937, s. 54-64.
Mehdî Muhakkık, “Redd-i Mûsâ b. Meymûn Ber Câlînûs ve Difâʿ ez Mûsâ b. ʿİmrân”, Mecelle-i Dânişkede-i Edebiyyât u ʿUlûm-i İnsânî , sy. 1, Tahran 1346 hş., s. 1-34.
a.mlf., “Kitâb al-Şukûk ʿalâ Jâlînûs (Le livre des doutes sur Galien) de Muhammad b. Zakariyyâ al-Râzî”, Etudes Orientales , nr. 9/10, Cedex (Paris) 1990, s. 826.
Muhammed Züheyr el-Bâbâ, “Câlînûs, ḥayâtühû, müʾellefâtühû, maḫṭûṭâtühü’ṭ-ṭıbbiyyetü’l-ʿArabiyye fi’l-Mektebeti’l-Vaṭaniyye bi-Bârîs”, MMMA (Küveyt) , XXI/1 (1407/1987), s. 211-229.
“Galen”, EBr. , IX, 1083-1084; a.e. [1990], V, 82-83.
Shlomo Pines, “Al-Rāzī, Abū Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariyyā”, DSB , VI, 323-326.
“Galen”, ER , V, 463-465.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1993 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 7. cildinde, 32-34 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.