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ÇELTİK Skip to content Kabuğu ayıklanmamış pirince (oryza sativa) ve bitkisine verilen ad.
Buğdaygiller familyasından olan çeltik bitkisi, buğday ve mısır gibi besleyici değeri yüksek tahıllar arasında yer alır ve özellikle Doğu Asya’da geniş ölçüde ziraatı yapılır. Dünya çeltik üretiminde ilk sırayı Çin, Hindistan, Bengladeş, Endonezya, Çinhindi ülkeleri, Brezilya ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri alır.
Bitkinin salkımlarında birbiri üzerine binmiş bir görüntü arzeden iki kavuzla örtülü taneleri bulunur ve buna çeltik adı verilir. Çeltik taneleri uzun veya yuvarlak, beyaz veya sarımtırak bir renge sahiptir. Suda yetiştirilen tek tahıl bitkisi olup gelişmesini su içinde tamamlar. Hasat yapıldıktan sonra demetleri kurutulur ve kuruyan başaklarından taneleri kolayca ayrılır. Taneler çeltik fabrikalarında işlenir, kalburdan geçirilerek kabukları çıkarılır, böylece ortaya çıkan beyaz tanelere pirinç denir.
Çeltik tarımının ilk olarak milâttan önce 3000 yıllarında Hindistan’da başladığı kabul edilmektedir. Daha sonra Uzakdoğu ve Ön Asya’ya ulaşmıştır. Milâttan önce 285’te pirinç ziraatının Irak, Suriye ve Horasan bölgelerinde yaygın şekilde yapıldığı tesbit edilmiştir. Ancak Sâsânîler çağı İran’ında pirinç yok denecek kadar azdı. İran’da Hazar denizi kıyılarında, Irak ve Mısır’da ise rutubetli bölgelerde yetiştirilmekteydi. Eski Yunan’da tanınmakla birlikte Avrupa’ya asıl girişi Ortaçağ’larda oldu; X. yüzyılda Araplar tarafından İspanya’ya götürüldü. Çeltik ziraatının Anadolu’da ne zaman başladığı bilinmemekteyse de Türkler’in Anadolu’ya girişiyle Asya karakterli bu bitkinin ekiminin yaygınlaştığı söylenebilir. Zira Orta Asya’da Çin’e yakın yerlerdeki ekime müsait bölgelerde Türkler’in pirinç ziraatı ile uğraştıkları bilinmektedir. Çin kaynaklarının incelenmesi sonucu, milâttan önce II. yüzyılda Batı Türkistan’da Fergana bölgesinde çeltik ziraatının yapıldığı tesbit edilmiştir. Kâşgarlı Mahmud’a göre Türkler çeltiğe veya pirince tuturkan diyorlardı. Türkler’in Anadolu’ya gelip çeltik ziraatını yaygınlaştırdıkları sırada tuturkan kelimesi yerini Farsça veya Sanskritçe asıllı olduğu ileri sürülen birinç kelimesine bıraktı. Hatta aynı kültürden etkilenen Mısır-Kıpçak ağzında, XIV. yüzyılda brinç , birinç kelimesi tuturkan ile eş anlamda kullanıldı. Anadolu’da ekimi yapılan pirinçlerin İran ve Doğu menşeli oluşları da gerek isim gerekse yayılma yönü bakımından dikkate değer ipuçları verir. Avrupa’da İspanya dışında pek bilinmeyen çeltik Ortaçağ’lardaki karşılıklı münasebetler sonucu geniş ölçüde tanındı. Bilhassa Anadolu Selçukluları ve Beylikler döneminde ihraç malları arasında önemli bir yer işgal etti.
Osmanlılar zamanında, kabuğu ayıklanmamış hali çeltik, kabuğu soyulmuş beyaz tanesi pirinç veya Farsça erz, sâfi erz, ak pirinç adlarıyla anılan bu bitkinin ziraatına büyük önem verilerek devlet tarafından teşvik edildi. Yeni fethedilen yerlerde dahi geniş ölçüde ziraatı yapıldı. Anadolu’nun sulamaya müsait hemen her bölgesinde yetiştirildiği gibi özellikle Rumeli’nin fethinden sonra buralarda büyük çeltik ziraat sahaları açıldı. Yetiştirilmesi, hasadı zor olduğundan ve sürekli suya ihtiyaç gösterdiğinden pirinç çok değerli bir mahsul özelliği taşımaktaydı. Bu yüzden üretimi teşvik için devlet bir işletme düzeni ve özel bir organizasyon meydana getirmişti. Çeltik ziraatının yapıldığı yerler su kaynağına yakın, başka bir mahsulün ekilmediği boş toprak parçalarıydı ve buralara su kanalları (Osmanlı terminolojisinde “nehr-i çeltük”) yönlendirilerek ziraata elverişli hale getirilirdi. Genellikle büyük haslara (padişah, şehzade, hânedan mensupları, yüksek devlet görevlileri) ait yerlerde veya vakıf-mülk topraklarda geniş ölçüde ekimi yapılır ve buralar mukātaa yoluyla kiraya verilerek veya ortakçılık statüsü ile işletilirdi. Her mukātaanın başında bir çeltik emini yer alır, özel vergi muafiyeti sağlanmış olup ziraatla uğraşan “çeltükçü reâyâ”, kanalları temizleyen ve arıtan “çeltük kürekçileri” onun idaresi altında bulunurlardı. Çeltikçilik babadan oğula intikal eden dâimî bir statüydü ve bunların başında bir çeltikçi reisi vardı. Meselâ Manisa yöresinde “enhâr-ı hâssa” emini Süleyman Bey’in idaresinde padişah haslarına dahil beş çeltik ekim sahası bulunuyor ve her bir ekim sahasında birer reis ve kürekçiler yer alıyordu. Ancak çeltik ziraatı çoğu yerde süreklilik göstermiyordu. Batı Anadolu bölgesinde su yetersizliği yüzünden on veya on beş yıl gibi uzun aralıklarla ekilen yerler bile mevcuttu. Bu bölgede bazan yağmur veya sel sularının biriktiği arazilerde de çeltik ziraatı yapılıyordu.
Çeltikçiler genellikle ortakçılık veya mukātaa sistemi içinde tohumu devletten veya toprağın sahibinden alırlar, elde edilen mahsulü belirlenmiş nisbetler içinde paylaşırlar, ayrıca kendi paylarından öşür vergilerini öderlerdi. Çeltik ziraatı yapılan yerlerde bazı farklı uygulamalar da görülüyor, bunda mahallî özellikler ve Osmanlı öncesi şekiller rol oynuyordu. XVI. yüzyıl başlarına ait Aydın kanunnâmesine göre, padişah hassı olan çeltik sipahinin timar ında ekildiğinde sipahi beylik (devlete ait) hisseden öşür alırken bu uygulama kaldırılarak rençberin (çeltikçi) hissesinden tahsili şekline dönüştürülmüştü. Çeltik ziraatının yaygın olarak yapıldığı Adana ve Sis (Kozan) yöresinde çeltikçilikle daha ziyade Türkmen cemaatleri uğraşırlardı. Burada Memlük zamanından kalma eski uygulamalar da sürdürülmüştü. Sis kanunnâmesine göre önce çeltik ekilecek arazi seçilir, su bastırıldıktan sonra ekime uygun hale getirilerek “ok” adı verilen 104 parçaya ayrılırdı. Çeltik tohumu ekilmeden önce bu 104 parçanın dördü devlete (mîrî), yirmi beşi çeltik kanallarını temizleyip suyu temin edenlere, otuz yedi buçuğu çeltik ekicilerine, dokuz buçuğu çeltik sahiplerine, geri kalan kısmı ise o yerin veya suyun sahibine paylaştırılır ve bunlar tohumu kendileri sağlamak suretiyle bu parçaları ekerlerdi. Biçilip harman edildikten sonra her harman dokuz demete ayrılır, bunun üç demeti mîrîye, su ve yer sahibine, su kanallarının bakımını üstlenenlere ve harman döğenlere tahsis edilir, geri kalan kısmı tohumu ekip ziraat yapana kalırdı. Doğrudan mîrîye ait yerlerde ise, çeltikçi reisleri, rençberleri ve kürekçileri devlet tarafından verilen tohumla ekimi yaparlar, daha sonra mukātaa emini bölge kadısını da yanına alarak verilen tohumu çıkardıktan sonra 1/3 veya 1/2 hisseyi ayırır, geri kalan kısmı çeltikçilere verir, mahsulün öşrü de çeltikçilerin hisselerinden tahsil edilirdi.
Timar topraklarında kendi adlarına çeltik ziraatı ile uğraşanlar bulunmakla birlikte çeltik ekim sahalarının çoğu devlete, büyük haslara ve vakıflara aitti. Meselâ Mora’da çeltik ziraatı sadece devlete aitti, bunun dışında hiç kimse ekim yapamıyordu. Bu uygulama özellikle Fâtih Sultan Mehmed döneminden itibaren yaygınlaştırılmış ve çeltik yasağı hükümleri bile çıkarılmıştı. Yine pazarlarda pirinç satışında devlete ait malların önceliği vardı. Fakat çeltik ekiminin tabiat şartlarından çok kolay etkilenmesi, zorluğu pirinci pahalı ve değerli yiyecek maddeleri arasına koyuyordu. Ayrıca İstanbul ile sarayın pirinç ihtiyacı büyük ölçüde Mısır’dan karşılanıyordu. Saraylar dışında büyük imaretlerde de pirinç tüketimi başta yer alıyordu. Bu imaretlerde her gün pirinç çorbası çıkıyor, ayrıca bayram geceleri, Ramazan geceleri ve cuma geceleri pilâv pişirilip dağıtılıyor, bunun yanı sıra imarete gelen misafirlere verilen yiyeceklerin başında da pilâv geliyordu.
Rumeli’de Filibe, Serez, Drama ve Ferecik’te bulunan büyük ziraat sahalarından elde edilen pirinç de İstanbul’a ve Anadolu’ya sevkediliyordu. XVI. yüzyıl ortalarında Amasya’ya giden Avusturya elçilik heyetinde yer alan H. Dernschwam, Türkler’in en çok yedikleri bitkinin pirinç olduğunu, genellikle koyun etiyle pişirildiğini, o sıralarda bir kile pirincin fiyatının 8-14 akçe arasında değiştiğini, fakat kıtlık yıllarında bu rakamların 24-30 akçeye kadar yükseldiğini, özellikle Filibe civarından geçerken çok geniş pirinç tarlaları gördüğünü belirtir (İstanbul ve Anadolu’ya Seyahat Günlüğü , s. 336, 339). Aynı gözlemlerde bulunan Busbecq de Türkler’in çeşitli pirinç yemekleri olduğunu yazar (Türk Mektupları , s. 37, 75). XV. yüzyıl sonlarında ise pirinç fiyatları kile başına 13-17 akçe arasında değişiyordu (Barkan, İFM , XXIII/1-2, s. 259). Bu rakam Mısır pirinci için 1586’ya doğru 33 akçe dolayındaydı (Barkan, VD , IX, 120).
Osmanlı iktisadî hayatında önemli bir yere sahip olduğu anlaşılan pirinç ziraatı giderek terkedilmeye ve çökmeye başladı. Rumeli topraklarının büyük bir kısmının elden çıkmasına paralel olarak 1878’den sonra pirinç ihtiyacı geniş ölçüde ithalât yolu ile karşılanmaya başlandı. 1880’de 104.753 ton pirinç ithal edildi ve bu XX. yüzyıl başlarında artarak sürdü. Bunda uygun olmayan şartların çiftçi üzerindeki olumsuz tesirlerinin de rolü vardır. Bugün Türkiye’de Marmara’nın Trakya kesiminde, Orta Karadeniz ve Ege bölgelerinde geniş üretim sahaları yer alır ve pirinç başlıca Edirne, Kastamonu, Çorum, Samsun, Sinop, İzmir, Balıkesir, Manisa, Adana, Mersin, Hatay, Kocaeli, Gaziantep, Ankara, Malatya ve Diyarbakır illerinde yetiştirilir. Ancak 1950’lerden itibaren Türkiye’de üretimin giderek artmasına ve hektar başına pirinç üretimi en yüksek ülkeler arasında yer almasına rağmen tüketim her zaman karşılanamamış ve zaman zaman dışarıdan ithal yoluna gidilmiştir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Ḳānūnnāme-i Sulṭānī ber Mūceb-i ʿÖrf-i ʿOsmānī (nşr. R. Anhegger – Halil İnalcık), Ankara 1956, s. 68-69, 81-82.
O. G. de Busbeck, Türk Mektupları (trc. H. Cahit Yalçın), İstanbul 1939, s. 37, 75.
H. Dernschwam, İstanbul ve Anadolu’ya Seyahat Günlüğü (trc. Yaşar Önen), Ankara 1988, s. 336, 339.
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Turan Güneş, Türkiye Çeltik Ekonomisi , Ankara 1971.
Ali Mazaherî, Ortaçağlarda Müslümanların Yaşayışları (trc. Bahriye Üçok), İstanbul 1972, s. 289-291.
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Bahaeddin Yediyıldız, Ordu Kazası Sosyal Tarihi (1455-1613) , Ankara 1985, s. 109-110.
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Feridun M. Emecen, XVI. Asırda Manisa Kazâsı , Ankara 1989, s. 246-250.
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N. Beldiceanu – I. Beldiceanu, “Riziculture dans l’Empire Ottoman (XIVe -XVe )”, Turcica , IX/2-X, Paris 1978, s. 928.
Yusuf Halaçoğlu, “Tapu-Tahrir Defterlerine Göre XVI. Yüzyılın İlk Yarısında Sis (=Kozan) Sancağı”, TD , sy. 32 (1979), s. 876-878.
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Z. Arıkan, “XV-XVI. Yüzyıllarda Anadolu’da Çeltik Üretimi”, V. Milletlerarası Türkiye Sosyal ve İktisat Tarihi Kongresi, Tebliğler (İstanbul 21-25 Ağustos 1989) , Ankara 1990, s. 477-481.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1993 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 8. cildinde, 265-266 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.