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CEMİYET Skip to content XIX. yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren İslâm dünyasında ve özellikle Osmanlı Devleti’nde ilmî, sosyal ve siyasî amaçla kurulan teşekküllere verilen ad.
Modern Arapça’da “birlik” ve “topluluk” kavramlarını ifade etmek için kullanılan kelime “toplama, biriktirme, devşirme” anlamlarına gelen cem‘ den türetilmiştir.
Cemiyet kelimesi modern Arapça’daki anlamında büyük bir ihtimalle ilk defa XVII. yüzyıl sonu veya XVIII. yüzyıl başında Suriye ve Lübnan’da kilise törenlerine katılan kalabalıkları tanımlamak için kullanılmıştır. Nitekim 1708’de kurulan ve bir Yunan Katolik mezhebi olan Salvatoryenler’e Cem‘iyyetü’l-Muhallis adı verilmiştir. XIX. yüzyıldan itibaren kelime önce Lübnan’da, daha sonra Osmanlı Devleti’nin diğer Arapça konuşulan bölgelerinde ilmî, edebî, hayrî ve siyasî gaye ile kurulan gönüllü dernekleri ifade etmek için kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Bunlardan bilinen ilki, Beyrut’ta 1847’de Amerikan Protestan misyonerlerinin çabaları sonucunda teşkil edilen ve üyelerinin tamamı hıristiyanlardan meydana gelen el-Cem‘iyyetü’s-Sûriyye’dir. Bu teşkilât daha sonra 1857’de kurulan ve bu defa hıristiyanların yanı sıra Dürzî ve müslümanları da içine alan el-Cem‘iyyetü’l-ilmiyyetü’s-Sûriyye adıyla faaliyetini sürdürmüştür. Bunu takip eden yıllarda başta okul açmak ve çeşitli hayır hizmetlerini yürütmek üzere İskenderiye’de Cem‘iyyetü’l-hayriyyeti’l-İslâmiyye (1878), Beyrut’ta Cem‘iyyetü’l-mekāsıdi’l-hayriyye (1880), Kahire’de Muhammed Abduh’un da faaliyette bulunduğu Cem‘iyyetü’l-hayriyyeti’l-İslâmiyye (1892) adlı dernekler kurulmuştur.
İstanbul’da ise Beşiktaş Cem‘iyyet-i İlmiyyesi adı verilen ve devrin önde gelen âlim ve edebiyatçılarının bir araya gelmesiyle teşekkül eden bir cemiyet mevcuttu. Ancak Târîh-i Cevdet ve Târîh-i Lutfî ’de “Cem‘iyyet-i İlmiyye” ve “Beşiktaş Cem‘iyyet-i İlmiyyesi” şeklinde zikredilen bu topluluk için ilk dönemlerde “cemiyet” unvanı kullanılmamıştır. Öte yandan 1856’da, İstanbul’da bulunan Fransız ve İngiliz hekimleriyle gayri müslim Osmanlı hekimlerinin bir araya gelmesiyle Dersaâdet Cem‘iyyet-i Tıbbiyyesi kurulmuş, bir yıl sonra bu cemiyet Sultan Abdülmecid’e yapılan müracaatla Cem‘iyyet-i Tıbbiyye-i Şâhâne adını almıştır. Bunu 1861’de Münif Mehmed Paşa’nın öncülüğünde kurulan Cem‘iyyet-i İlmiyye-i Osmâniyye takip etmiştir. Kuruluşundan bir yıl kadar sonra yayın organı olarak Mecmûa-i Fünûn ’u neşreden bu cemiyet Batı ilminin Osmanlı Devleti’ne girişinde çok önemli bir rol oynamıştır. 1864’te ise Cem‘iyyet-i Tedrîsiyye-i İslâmiyye adıyla müslüman çocuklarla isteyenlere dinî ve temel bilgiler vermek gayesiyle bir cemiyet kurulmuştur. Bu cemiyetin önemi, hükümetten izin alınarak kurulan ilk cemiyet olmasıdır. 1889’a kadar cemiyetlerin kurulmasıyla ilgili olarak herhangi bir hukukî işlem yapılmamıştır. Bu tarihten önce hükümet ve Mâbeyn’e cemiyetler tarafından yapılan müracaatlar ise daha ziyade malî yardım teminine yönelik başvurular olmuştur.
1876 Kānûn-ı Esâsî metninin “Tebaa-i Devlet-i Osmâniyye’nin Hukūk-ı Umûmiyyesi” bölümündeki 13. madde, “Tebaa-i Osmâniyye nizam ve kanun dairesinde ticaret ve sanat ve filâhat içün her nev‘ şirketler teşkiline me’zundurlar” hükmünü taşımaktaydı. Ancak burada kullanılan “şirket” tabiriyle kastedilen cemiyetlerin teşkilini düzenleyen bir cemiyetler kanunu dönemin şartları içinde hazırlanmadı. Daha sonra 1889’da çıkarılan bir irade ile devlet tarafından izin verilmedikçe hiçbir şirketin teşekkülüne müsaade edilmemesi hükmü getirildi. Bu dönemde cemiyetlerin siyasî faaliyette bulunmaları endişe ile karşılandığı için çok istisnaî durumlar ve bizzat Mâbeyin yahut hükümet tarafından teşkil edilenler dışında cemiyet kurulmasına izin verilmedi. Sadece istisnaî olarak uzun bir yazışma sonrası Mûsevîler’in XV. yüzyıl İspanyolca’sını terk ile Türkçe kullanmalarına çalışan Ta‘mîm-i Lisân-ı Osmânî Cemiyeti’nin kurulmasına müsaade edildi (Safer 1318 / Haziran 1900). Bu dönemde taşrada kurulan ve Cem‘iyyet-i İlmiyye genel adını taşıyan, çoğunluğu halka dinî bilgiler vermeyi amaçlayan cemiyetlerin faaliyetleri de kontrol altına alındı ve Adliye ve Mezâhib Nezâreti’nin 25 Zilhicce 1317 (26 Nisan 1900) tarih ve 102 numaralı tezkiresiyle bunlar hakkında soruşturma yapılarak şüphe uyandıranların hemen hepsinin faaliyetine son verildi. Bu arada bilhassa 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Savaşı ve sonrasında Berlin Kongresi ile Osmanlı Devleti’nin kaybettiği ve büyük çapta müslüman nüfusun yaşadığı bölgelerdeki müslüman halk Cem‘iyyet-i İlmiyye-i İslâmiyye, Cem‘iyyet-i Tedrîsiyye-i İslâmiyye, Cem‘iyyet-i Hayriyye-i İslâmiyye adlarıyla dinî eğitim ve dayanışma faaliyetleri için teşkilâtlar kurdu. Çok sayıdaki bu kuruluşlara örnek olarak Mayıs 1900’de Şumnu’da kurulan Terakkî-i Maârif-i İslâmiyye Cemiyeti ile Osmanlı belgelerinde 1901’de Kıbrıs’ta faaliyette bulunduğuna işaret edilen ve kesin kuruluş tarihi bilinmeyen Cem‘iyyet-i Hayriyye-i İslâmiyye gösterilebilir.
Osmanlı Devleti’nde bu dönemde cemiyet kuruluşu hakkında görülen önemli bir gelişme de gizli siyasî cemiyetlerin kurulmasındaki büyük artış oldu. Gerçi daha önce 1859’da teşekkül eden ve Kuleli Vak‘ası’na sebep olan Fedâiler Cemiyeti ile 1865’te faaliyete geçen ünlü Yeni Osmanlılar Cemiyeti bu alandaki ilk örnekler olmuşlardı. Bilhassa Mustafa Fâzıl Paşa’nın malî desteğiyle gelişen ikinci teşkilât, Osmanlı yönetimine karşı yurt dışında önemli bir siyasî muhalefeti organize etmiş ve çok sayıda muhalif gazete yayımlamıştır ki bunların en önemlisi merkez yayın organı niteliğini taşıyan Hürriyet (Londra 1868) gazetesidir. Ancak gizli siyasî cemiyetler büyük çapta II. Abdülhamid döneminin bir özelliği olmuştur. Bu alandaki ilk kuruluş, Şemsipaşa’da Ali Suâvi’nin evinde toplandığı için Üsküdar Cemiyeti adıyla anılmış ve Çırağan Vak‘ası’nı (8 Mayıs 1878) hazırlamıştır. Bunu mason teşkilâtı liderlerinden Cleanti Scalieri’nin kurduğu Cleanti Scalieri-Aziz Bey Komitesi takip etmiştir. Bu teşkilât, “komite” tabirini kullanan ve Türkler’in yer aldığı ilk siyasî kuruluş olma özelliğini de taşımaktadır. V. Murad’ı yeniden tahta çıkarma gayesini taşıdığı için II. Abdülhamid tarafından dağıtılmıştır. 1889 Haziranında Mekteb-i Tıbbiyye-i Şâhâne’de kurulan ve daha sonra Osmanlı İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti adını alan İttihâd-ı Osmânî Cemiyeti şüphesiz bu dönemde kurulan gizli siyasî cemiyetlerin en önemlisidir. Yurt içinde teşekkül eden ve daha sonra yurt dışında da faaliyet göstermeye çalışan gizli siyasî teşkilâtlar arasında, 1896’da İngiliz yöneticilerine başvuran Vatanperverân-ı İslâmiyye Cemiyeti, aynı yıl yurt dışındaki muhalif gazetelerde beyannâmeleri yayımlanan ve ulemâ desteğine sahip bulunduğunu iddia eden Cem‘iyyet-i İlmiyye-i İslâmiyye, İstanbul’daki mason teşkilâtının siyasî kanadı olarak faaliyet gösteren Osmanlı Hürriyetperverân Cemiyeti (Comité Liberal Ottoman), Cem‘iyyet-i İnkılâbiyye (1904), daha sonra Osmanlı Terakkî ve İttihat Cemiyeti ile birleşen ve 1906’da Selânik’te kurulan Osmanlı Hürriyet Cemiyeti, 1907’de Şam’da kurulan Vatan ve Hürriyet Cemiyeti, Prens Sabahaddin’i destekleyen gençler tarafından yine 1907’de İstanbul’da kurulan Selâmet-i Umûmiyye Kulübü en önemlileri olarak zikredilebilir.
Özellikle 1896’dan sonra yurt içinde muhalif siyasî cemiyet kurmanın zorlaşması sebebiyle Jön Türkler tarafından yurt dışında çeşitli cemiyetler kurulmuştur. Bunlar arasında en önemlileri Osmanlı İcraat Komitesi (1898), Cem‘iyyet-i Cedîde-i Osmâniyye (İngiltere 1894), İstikbâl-i Vatan ve Millet Cem‘iyyet-i Osmâniyyesi (Cenevre 1900), Şafak Osmanlı İttihat Cemiyeti (Mısır 1901), İntikamcı Yeni Osmanlılar Cemiyeti (Cenevre 1901), Osmanlı İstirdat Cemiyeti (Cenevre 1901), Osmanlı Terakkî ve İttihat Cemiyeti (Paris 1902), Osmanlı İttihat ve İnkılâp Cemiyeti (Cenevre 1904), Teşebbüs-i Şahsî ve Adem-i Merkeziyet Cemiyeti’dir (Paris 1906). Bu arada II. Abdülhamid döneminde bilhassa Bulgar, Makedon ve Ermeni grupları tarafından kurulan ve yurt içinde de faaliyet gösteren gizli siyasî cemiyetlerin de kuruluşunda büyük artış olmuştur. Bunların başlıcaları ise Ermeni Taşnaksutyun, Hınçak ve Reforme Hınçak cemiyetleri, Bulgar Santralist ve Virhoven komiteleriyle Makedon “VMRO” teşkilâtıdır.
II. Meşrutiyet’in fiilî gerçekleştiricisi olan Osmanlı İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti 1908 Temmuzundan itibaren sadece “Cemiyet” adıyla anılmıştır. Meşrutiyet’in ilânından sonra Cem‘iyyet-i Mukaddese adıyla da tanınan bu teşkilâtı taklit ederek pek çok yeni cemiyet ortaya çıkmış, bunlar kendilerini Osmanlı İttihat ve Terakkî Cemiyeti’nin birer şubesi olarak tanıtmışlardır.
II. Meşrutiyet sonrasında siyasî partilerin kurulmaya başlanması ile “cemiyet” sözü İttihat ve Terakkî dışında siyasî olduğu kadar gizli faaliyet gösteren teşkilâtlar için de kullanılır olmuştur. Bu dönemde gerek siyasî ve meslekî, gerekse ilmî ve dinî pek çok cemiyet kurulmuş ve bunun bir sonucu olarak 1876’da gerçekleştirilemeyen bir cemiyetler kanununun hazırlanması için yeniden çalışmalara başlanmıştır. Nihayet 29 Receb 1327 (16 Ağustos 1909) tarih ve 121 numaralı kanun Osmanlı Devleti’ndeki ilk düzenleme olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu kanun cemiyeti, “eşhâs-ı müteaddide tarafından mâlûmat veya mesailerini sûret-i dâimede bi’t-tevhîd mukāseme-i ribhden gayrı bir maksatla teşkil edilen heyettir” şeklinde tanımlıyor, dolayısıyla ticaret dışı gayelere yönelik bütün teşkilâtları cemiyet olarak kabul ediyordu. Kanunun ikinci maddesinde cemiyet teşkili için önceden izin alınmayacağı, ancak İstanbul’da Dahiliye Nezâreti’ne, taşrada ise mahallin en büyük mülkî âmirine bildirileceği hükmü yer almaktaydı. Öte yandan cemiyet kuruluşu ile ilgili sınırlamalar kanunun 3, 4 ve 6. maddelerinde belirtilmiş ve burada Osmanlı tebaasını birbirine düşüren, hükümeti değiştirmeye mâtuf, şer‘î ve ahlâkî kurallara aykırı, kanun hükümleri dışında faaliyet gösteren, milliyet farkına dayalı gizli cemiyet teşkili yasaklanmıştı. 5. madde gereğince de cemiyet üyeliği için yaş sınırı en az yirmi olarak kabul edilmişti. 18. maddede ise cemiyetlerin İstanbul’da Zabtiye nâzırından, taşrada ise en büyük mülkî âmirden izin almak şartıyla zâbıta tarafından denetlenebileceği hükme bağlanıyordu. Fransız kanunları esas alınarak gerçekleştirilmiş olan bu kanun, özellikle 31 Mart Olayı’nın doğurduğu endişe ile hükümeti ve onu fiilen yöneten İttihat ve Terakkî’yi bu alanda sınırlayıcı bir tavır almaya zorlamıştı. Ancak onun da bilhassa ordu üzerindeki tesirini azaltmak için kısa iktidarları döneminde İttihat ve Terakkî muhalifleri 28 Eylül 1912 tarihli irâde-i seniyye ile “bütün me’mûrîn, müstahdemîn ve muallimînin” fırka ve siyasî cemiyetlere üye olmasını yasaklamışlardır.
II. Meşrutiyet devrinde kurulan cemiyetler arasında, Beyânülhak dergisini neşreden ve ulemâ tarafından kurulan Cem‘iyyet-i İlmiyye-i İslâmiyye, tarikat mensupları tarafından kurulan Cem‘iyyet-i Sûfiyye; meslekî mahiyette Osmanlı Mühendis ve Mimar Cemiyeti, Etıbbâ-i Mülkiyye-i Osmâniyye Cem‘iyyet-i İttihâdiyyesi, Osmanlı Cem‘iyyet-i İlmiyye-i Baytâriyyesi, Osmanlı Eczacı İttihat Cemiyeti, Cem‘iyyet-i Umûr-ı Tıbbiyye; eğitim gayeli Osmanlı Coğrafya Cemiyeti, Türk Bilgi Derneği; siyasî bakımdan eski dönemin firarilerinin ve mahpuslarının haklarını korumak için kurulan Fedakârân-ı Millet Cemiyeti ve Osmanlıcılık fikrini yaymak için kurulan Osmanlı Hürriyet ve Teâvün-i Millî Cemiyeti en önemlileridir. Bu arada bu dönemde iktidarın desteğinde kurulan Türk Derneği, Türk Yurdu Cemiyeti, Türk Ocağı, İstihlâk-ı Millî Cemiyeti, Millî Tâlim ve Terbiye Cemiyeti ile Halka Doğru Cemiyeti, Türk milliyetçiliği fikirlerini çeşitli zeminlerde yaymak için faaliyet göstermişlerdir. Bunlar arasında özellikle Türk ocaklarının faaliyeti son derece önemlidir. Yurt dışındaki Osmanlı gençleri de bu gaye ile yurt dışındaki çeşitli merkezlerde Türk yurtlarını kurmuşlardır.
Mütareke ile beraber yabancı işgaline ve ülkeye kabul ettirilmeye çalışılan barış şartlarına karşı olduğu gibi ayrıca milliyetçi kuruluşlara muhalif çok sayıda siyasî cemiyet kurulmuştur. Bunların önemlileri içinde, Anadolu hareketine karşılık olarak Osmanlı İ‘lâ-yi Vatan Cemiyeti, İngiliz Muhibleri Cemiyeti, Trabzon ve Havalisi Adem-i Merkeziyet Cemiyeti, Wilson Prensipleri Cemiyeti, Kürdistan Teâlî Cemiyeti, Şark-ı Karîb Çerkezleri Te’mîn-i Hukuk Cemiyeti; bu hareket yanlısı olarak ise çoğunluğu Müdâfaa-i Hukuk ve Redd-i İlhak ortak adıyla kurulanları örnek olarak gösterilebilir. Daha sonra Sivas Kongresi’nde bu son teşkilâtlar Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdâfaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti çatısı altında birleşmişlerdir. Bu cemiyet savaş sonrasında Halk Fırkası’nın kuruluşunu gerçekleştirmiştir.
Cumhuriyet rejiminin kurulması ile siyasî cemiyetlerin sayısında büyük oranda bir azalma oldu. 1924 anayasasının 70. maddesi, “cemiyet”in Türkler’in tabii hukukundan sayılan hürriyetler olduğunu belirtmesine ve 1909 cemiyetler kanununun yürürlükte olmasına rağmen bu dönemde hükümet tarafından bilgi ve kültür gayesiyle kurulanlar dışında fazla cemiyete rastlanmaz. Yeni rejim 20 Kânunuevvel 1339 (1923) tarih ve 387 sayılı kanunla “her nevi cemiyetlerin muâmelât-ı idâriyye ve hesâbiyyesinin” hükümet tarafından istenildiği zaman kontrol edilebileceği hakkını ortaya çıkararak cemiyet kuruluşunu daha da zorlaştırmıştır. 15 Teşrînievvel 1339 (1923) tarih ve 353 sayılı kanunla cemiyet üyeliği yaşı on sekize indirilmişse de bunun cemiyet kuruluşunu fazla etkilediği söylenemez. 3 Mart 1341 (1925) tarih ve 578 sayılı Takrîr-i Sükûn Kanunu, hükümete her türlü faaliyeti kontrol altında bulundurmak bakımından çok geniş yetkiler vermekteydi. Bu husus cemiyetler üzerindeki kontrolü de arttırdı. 24 Kânunusâni 1927 tarih ve 109 sayılı yorum ile cemiyetler kanununun 12. maddesi, kapatılan cemiyetlerin yeniden kurulması durumunda Dahiliye Nezâreti’nin bunların tüzüklerini tetkik ve takdire yetkili olduğu belirtildi. 28 Haziran 1938 tarihinde 3512 sayılı cemiyetler kanunu ile de 1909 kanunu yürürlükten kaldırıldı ve Cumhuriyet döneminin cemiyetlerle ilgili hukukî yapısı şekillendirildi. Bu yeni kanunun 9. maddesiyle cemiyet kuruluşu ile ilgili sınırlamalar genişletildi. Kanunun 10. maddesi “arsıulusal” (milletlerarası) maksatlarla cemiyet kurulmasını yasakladı; 15. maddede ise cemiyetlerin birden fazla amaçla uğraşamayacakları hükmü getirildi. 4. madde ile de cemiyetlerin faaliyete geçebilmesi için ana nizamnâmesinin verildiği mülkî makamca tasdiki şartı getirildi.
Yeni kanun ve kısa süre sonra başlayan II. Dünya Savaşı sebebiyle siyasî cemiyet kurmak imkânsız bir duruma geldi ve mevcut cemiyetler de hükümetin yoğun kontrolü altına girdi. Çok partili rejime geçişe kadar Cumhuriyet Halk Fırkası (CHF [P]), Türk Hava Kurumu, Kızılay, Çocuk Esirgeme Kurumu gibi hayır derneklerini dahi bütünüyle denetimi altına aldı ve bunların yönetimini kendi üyeleri aracılığı ile gerçekleştirdi.
1945’ten sonra çok partili rejime geçiş faaliyetleri sırasında ve 1946’da Demokrat Parti’nin kurulması ile iktidar karşısında kuvvetli bir muhalefetin organizasyonu gerçekleşince, iktidar ve muhalefet arasında çeşitli kanunlardaki hürriyetleri kısıtlayıcı hükümlerin tâdili tartışmaları başladı. Hükümet 5 Haziran 1946 tarihli 4919 sayılı kanunla cemiyetler kanununun önemli sekiz maddesini değiştirdi. Bunlar içinde en önemlisi, devlet rejimine aykırı amaç gütme ve emniyet ve asayişi bozma istisnalarının çıkartıldığı 9. maddede yapılan değişiklikti. Bu kanun ile cemiyet kurulması büyük ölçüde kolaylaştırılmış oldu ve 1947 Türkiye Yıllığı ’ndaki rakamlara göre 1946’da içtimaî cemiyetler 241’e, hayır cemiyetleri 100’e, talebe cemiyetleri seksene, güzelleştirme cemiyetleri yetmiş dokuza, ilmî cemiyetler yirmi ikiye, sağlık cemiyetleri on üçe, esnaf cemiyetleri de 343’e yükseldi.
Demokrat Parti’nin iktidara gelişiyle siyasî cemiyetlerde de artış başladı. Bu dönemde kurulan cemiyetlerden Büyük Doğu ve Türk Milliyetçiler Derneği en önemlileridir.
1960 İhtilâli sonrasında hazırlanan 1961 anayasası dernek kurma hakkını da genişletti. Bu anayasanın 29. maddesi herkesin önceden izin almaksızın dernek kurma hakkına sahip olduğunu belirtiyor ve bu hakkın ancak kamu düzenini ve genel ahlâkı korumak için kanunla sınırlanabileceğini ilân ediyordu. 5 Haziran 1964 tarih ve 4919 sayılı kanun bu alanda ülkemizde neşredilmiş en geniş dernek kurma hakkını veren kanun oldu. 1971’deki 12 Mart muhtırası sonrasında ise özellikle 1961-1971 döneminde kurulan çok sayıda siyasî amaçlı derneğe sınırlama getirilebilmesi için önce 20 Eylül 1971 tarih ve 1488 sayılı kanun ile anayasanın 29. maddesi değiştirildi ve sınırlamalar arttırıldı. 22 Aralık 1972 tarih ve 1630 sayılı yeni dernekler kanunu ile bu sınırlamalar düzenlendi. Ancak bu yeni düzenlemeye rağmen çok sayıda siyasî dernek 1980’e kadar yoğun şekilde faaliyet gösterdi. 12 Eylül 1980 sonrasında ise bilhassa siyasî derneklerle ilgili sınırlamalar arttırıldı. 1982’de kabul edilen anayasanın 33. maddesi ise dernek kurma hürriyetini derinlemesine tanımladı ve sınırlamaların pek çoğunu kanuna bırakmayarak bu metinde zikretti. 6 Ekim 1983 tarih ve 2908 sayılı yeni dernekler kanunu da bu yönde hükümleri ihtiva etmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Düstur , İkinci tertip, İstanbul 1330, II; IV (1331); Üçüncü tertip, Ankara 1931, V; VII (1934); VIII (1934); XIX (1938).
Türkiye Yıllığı (1947).
Tarık Zafer Tunaya, Türkiye’de Siyasî Partiler: 1859-1952 , İstanbul 1952, I-III, tür.yer.
M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Bir Siyasal Örgüt Olarak Osmanlı İttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti ve Jön Türklük: 1889-1902 , İstanbul 1986, bk. İndeks.
Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu, Osmanlı İlmî ve Meslekî Cemiyetleri , İstanbul 1987, tür.yer.
Ayhan Yalçın, 1924, 1961, 1982 Anayasaları , İstanbul 1987.
Resmî Gazete , nr. 6329, Ankara 1946.
Albert Hourani – D. A. Rustow, “D̲j̲amʿiyya”, EI2 (İng.) , II, 428-433.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1993 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 7. cildinde, 329-331 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.