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CERRAHLIK Skip to content
1/2 Müellif: HASAN DOĞRUYOL Bölüme Git
Modern tıp dilindeki chirurgie teriminin Arapça karşılığı, cerh “yaralamak, yaralanmak” kökünden türeyen cirâha kelimesidir. İlm-i cirâha veya bugünkü…
2/2 Müellif: NİL SARI Bölüme Git
Osmanlılar’da Cerrahlık Mesleği. Cerrahlık Osmanlılar’da maharet ve tecrübe isteyen bir meslek dalı olarak görülürdü ve cerrah daha çok bir sanat erba…
Modern tıp dilindeki chirurgie teriminin Arapça karşılığı, cerh “yaralamak, yaralanmak” kökünden türeyen cirâha kelimesidir. İlm-i cirâha veya bugünkü Türkçe’de kullanıldığı şekliyle cerrahî, cerrahiye, cerrahlık eski kaynaklarda, “İnsan bedeninde ortaya çıkan yaralarla bu yaraların cinslerini anlatan, hasta organların ilâç kullanmak yahut kesilip çıkarılmak suretiyle tedavilerini gösteren, bu konuya dair her türlü ilâç ve aletlerle ilgili bilgiyi içeren ilim dalıdır” diye tarif edilir; modern kaynaklarda ise tıbbın bir şubesi olarak ele alınıp “tedavi ilminin el ve aletle müdahaleyi gerektiren bölümü” şeklinde tanımlanır. İslâm kaynaklarında tarif edildiği anlamda cirâha kelimesine IX. yüzyıldan itibaren rastlanır; sistematik olarak ise ilk defa ünlü hekim Aynizerbî tarafından kullanılmıştır. Bundan sonra, daha önceleri Grek tıp kitaplarının Arapça’ya yapılmış tercümelerinde cerrahlık anlamına kullanılan el-amel bi’l-yed veya amelü’l-yed (el ile yapılan işlem) teriminin yerini cirâha kelimesine bıraktığı ve cerrahlığın bir bölümünü ifade etmek üzere “ameliyat” anlamında varlığını devam ettirdiği görülmektedir.
Cerrahî hastalıkların başlangıcı insanlık tarihi kadar eskidir. İnsanoğlu İlkçağ’larda da yaralarını tedavi etmeye ve kanamaları durdurmaya çalışmış, hatta kafatası kemiklerini açmayı dahi başarabilmiştir. Cerrahî ilmi bakımından bilinen en eski yazılı belgeler Mezopotamyalılar’a ve Mısırlılar’a aittir. Bu medeniyetlerde tıp ilmi dinî motiflerle iç içedir; meselâ Mezopotamya’da bu alanda çalışanlar hekimler, cin çıkarıcılar, ilâhiciler ve cerrahlar şeklinde sınıflandırılırdı. Bâbil Kralı Hammurabi’nin (m.ö. 1792-1750) kanunlarında cerrahlıkta dikkat edilecek hususlar belirtilmiş ve yapılacak hatalarla ilgili cezalar tesbit edilmiştir. Milâttan önce 1600 yıllarında kaleme alınmış “Edwin Smith papirüsü” denilen bir Mısır yazılı belgesinde kırk sekiz cerrahî vak‘a gösterilmiştir. Öte yandan Hintliler’in de eski çağlarda cerrahlık alanında önemli başarılar gösterdiği bilinmektedir. Susruta Samhita adlı kitapta kesme, kesip çıkarma, hacamat, sonda koyma, iğne ile boşaltma ve dikiş gibi bazı temel cerrahlık tekniklerinden söz edilir. Yine bu kitapta yüzden fazla alet tanıtılmış, ayrıca karnın açılması (laparotomi) ve taş çıkarma ameliyatları tarif edilmiştir. Hintli cerrahların, özellikle burun ve kulak gibi organların cerrahî müdahale ile tedavisi hususunda beceri sahibi en eski plastik cerrahlar olduğu kaydedilmektedir.
Eski Yunan’da ve Roma’da cerrah özel bir branş hekimi olarak mesleğini icra etmiştir. Klasik tıp kitaplarında kırıklar, çıkıklar ve diğer cerrahî hastalıklar konusunda bilgi veren çeşitli bölümler mevcuttur. Bunların en önemlileri, sonradan Corpus Hyppocratum adı altında bir araya toplanan Hipokrat’ın (ö. m.ö. 377) yazılarından cerrahlık üzerine olan bölümle, Aulus Cornelius Celsius’un (m.s. I. yüzyıl) ana hatlarıyla cerrahlık hakkında kaleme aldığı De medicinae adlı eseridir. Bu eserlerde cerrahların bilmesi gereken konular ve cerrahî tedavilerin nasıl uygulanacağı ayrıntılarıyla belirtilmiştir. Milâttan sonra III. yüzyıldan itibaren tıp mensupları Galen (ö. 200 [?]) doktrininin takipçisi olmuşlar ve hastalıkların sebeplerini sarı safra, kara safra, kan ve balgamın fazla miktarlarda değişik yerlere toplanması şeklinde yorumlamışlardır. Bundan dolayı cerrahlık ilmi kendine yeterince faaliyet alanı bulamamış ve sadece yara berelerin tedavisiyle meşgul olmuştur. Ortaçağ boyunca cerrahlığın durumu daha da kötüye gitmiş ve cerrahlar kilise çevrelerinde hakir görülen cahil kişiler olarak kabul edilmişlerdir. Hatta ünlü Fransız cerrahı François Quesnay (ö. 1774) ve daha sonraki bazı Batılı ilim adamları, kilisenin cerrahlığı yasakladığını dahi ileri sürmüşlerdir. Gerek Galen doktrini gerekse kilisenin olumsuz tutumu uzun süre cerrahînin tıp bilimlerinden sayılmamasına sebep olmuş, dolayısıyla Avrupa’da cerrahlık Rönesans dönemine kadar gerilemeye devam etmiştir.
Doğuşunda, Hint kültüründen izler taşıyan İran ve eski Mezopotamya-Mısır-Grek-Roma kültür müesseselerini bünyesinde toplamış Doğu Roma (Bizans) medeniyetleriyle karşılaşan İslâm, onlardan benimsediklerini bünyesine alarak ve tercümeler yoluyla Helenistik düşünceden de faydalanarak kendi orijinal medeniyetini kurmuştur. İslâm medeniyetinin ortaya çıktığı zamanlar, Ortaçağ Avrupası’nın hastalıkları birtakım kehanetlerle manastır köşelerinde tedavi etmeye çalıştığı karanlık tıp devirlerine rastlar. Meryem’in Allah’ın oğlunu değil sadece Îsâ’yı doğurduğunu söylemesi yüzünden patriklikten uzaklaştırılıp İstanbul’dan kovulan rahip Nestorius’un (ö. 451) müridleri İran’a sığınmış ve zamanla Cündişâpûr’a yerleşerek Enûşirvân’ın (531-579) kurduğu tıp ve felsefe okulunda görev almışlardı. Ayrıca 529 yılında Atina’dan kovulan yedi Yeni Eflâtuncu filozof da İran’a sığınarak 549’a kadar orada ders vermişlerdi. İslâm ordularının İran’ı fethettiği yıllarda en parlak devrini yaşayan bu okulun mensupları eski Yunan, Hint ve İran kaynaklarının Arapça’ya tercüme edilmesinde önemli rol oynamışlardır.
İslâmiyet’in ilk dönemlerinde, kaynak ve temelini Arap yarımadasındaki halk hekimliğiyle Hz. Peygamber’in sağlık üzerine söylenmiş hadislerinin oluşturduğu bir tıp uygulaması mevcuttu. Hz. Peygamber zamanında damarı keserek kan alma, yarayı dağlama gibi yollarla tedavi yapıldığı ve Ebû Rimse’nin mahir bir cerrah olduğu bilinmektedir (Kettânî, II, 217-219). Her ne kadar elde bu devirden kalma tıp yazmaları bulunmuyorsa da Asr-ı saâdet’e ait rivayetlerden, o dönemde kılıçla karnından yaralanan sahâbîlere süt içirildikten sonra sütün yaradan çıkıp çıkmadığına bakılarak yaralanmanın derecesinin tayin edilmesi gibi çok önemli cerrahî teşhislerin yapılabildiği, fakat bunun yanında yeniden açılan kabuk tutmuş bir yaradaki kanamanın durdurulamaması sonucu hastanın kaybedilmesi gibi tedavi yetersizliklerinin de yaşandığı öğrenilmektedir.
Hz. Peygamber’in müslüman olmayan hekimlere sanatlarını icra etmeleri için izin vermiş olması (a.g.e. , II, 212-217), sonraki halife ve emîrlerin bu hekimlere müsamaha göstermelerine, hatta onları teşvik ve taltif etmelerine sebep olmuştur; içlerinden birçoğu saray başhekimliğine dahi yükselmiştir. Yabancıların başlattığı tercüme çalışmalarına zamanla müslüman hekimler de katılmış ve böylece bir tercüme okulu doğmuştur. Bu faaliyetin öncülerinden Huneyn b. İshak (ö. 260/873), Yunanlı cerrah Aeginalı Paulus’un (ö. 690) Epitomeler ’ini, Abbas b. Saîd el-Cevherî de Hintli hekim Şanak’a atfedilen beş risâleyi Kitâbü’s-Sümûm ve’t-tiryâḳ adıyla tercüme ederek bir taraftan Yunan ve Roma cerrahîsini, diğer taraftan Hint cerrahî ve anestezi metotlarını müslüman cerrahlara tanıtmışlardır. Bu devrin üç ünlü hekimi Ebû Bekir er-Râzî (ö. 313/925), Ali b. Abbas el-Mecûsî (ö. 384/994) ve İbn Sînâ (ö. 428/1037) cerrah adına pek iltifat etmemekle birlikte bugün cerrahî vak‘alar içinde mütalaa edilen birçok hastalıktan bahsetmişler ve kitaplarında ayrı konular halinde cerrahın ve cerrahî tekniklerin özelliklerini anlatmışlardır. Ali b. Îsâ el-Kehhâl, Zehrâvî, İsmâil b. Hasan el-Cürcânî, İbn Zühr, İbnü’l-Kuf ve İbnü’n-Nefîs, İslâm’ın XI-XIII. yüzyıllarda yetiştirdiği ünlü cerrahlardır. Bunlardan Ali b. Îsâ, Cürcânî ve İbn Zühr göz cerrahîsinde çok ileri idiler; İbn Zühr ayrıca modern kliniklerin de kurucusu sayılır. İbnü’n-Nefîs küçük kan dolaşımını keşfeden hekimdir. Endülüs ekolünün en önemli temsilcisi olan Ebü’l-Kāsım ez-Zehrâvî (ö. 400/1010 civarı), yazdığı Kitâbü’t-Taṣrîf adlı ansiklopedik eseriyle tedavi, farmakoloji ve bilhassa cerrahlık açısından çağdaşlarına ve daha sonraki meslektaşlarına uzun yıllar örnek teşkil etmiştir. Kitâbü’t-Taṣrîf ’in “Maḳāle fî ʿameli’l-yed” adıyla cerrahlığa ayrılmış olan ve üç babdan meydana gelen otuzuncu makalesi kısa bir sürede bütün İslâm dünyasına, hemen ardından da Batı dünyasına yayılmıştır. Müslüman cerrahların en üstünü olarak kabul edilen Ebü’l-Kāsım o kadar meşhur olmuştu ki portresi Râzî ve İbn Sînâ ile beraber Milano Katedrali’ni süslemekteydi. Kitabı XVII. yüzyılın sonlarına kadar Doğu’da ve Batı’da ders kitabı olarak okutuldu. Bu eserde birçok ameliyat tarif edildiği gibi dağlama suretiyle tedavi üzerinde de durulmuş ve bu metotla çeşitli hastalıkların nasıl tedavi edildiği, kanamaların nasıl durdurulduğu açıklanmıştır; ayrıca eserde cerrahlık aletleri de resimleriyle tanıtılmıştır. İbnü’l-Kuf ise devrinin en büyük cerrahı idi ve İslâmî tıp literatüründe yalnız cerrahî konuların ele alındığı ilk tıp kitabı olarak bilinen el-ʿUmde fî ṣınâʿati’l-cirâḥa (I-II, Haydarâbâd 1937) adlı eseri yazmıştı.
İslâm medeniyetiyle tanışmaya başladığı VIII-X. yüzyıllarda Avrupa, ilk defa İslâm ilminin kendi ilminden çok üstün olduğunu farketmiştir. VIII. yüzyılda Milano’da, IX. yüzyılda Salerno ile Padova’da ve XII. yüzyılda Napoli’de kurulan tıp okullarına İslâm dünyasındaki örneklerin büyük tesiri olmuştur. Salerno Tıp Okulu’nun dört kurucusundan birinin Arap Adale olduğu rivayet edilir. Kartacalı Konstantin ve Cremonalı Gerard (ö. 1187), Arapça tıp eserlerini ilk defa Latince’ye çeviren Batılılar olarak ün yapmışlardır. Cremonalı Gerard’ın Tuleytula’da (Toledo) Latince’ye çevirdiği eserlerin en önemlisi Zehrâvî’nin Kitâbü’t-Taṣrîf ’idir. Liber Alsahavari de Chirurgia adıyla tercüme ettiği kitabın cerrahî kısmı önce İtalyan, daha sonra da Fransız cerrahlarını ileri derecede etkilemiştir. Afrikalı Leon’a (ö. 1549) atfedilip önce J. H. Hottinger, ardından da J. A. Fabricius tarafından Libellus de viris quibusdam illustribus apud Arabes adıyla Latince’ye çevrilen eserdeki Ebü’l-Kāsım’a ait kısa biyografide kastedilen kişi Zehrâvî olduğu halde sonraki yazarların hiçbiri bu kısmı iktibas dahi etmemiştir. XIII. yüzyılda Salerno Tıp Okulu’ndan yetişip ilk defa cerrahî dalında üstat unvanını alan Chirurgia ’nın yazarı Guglielmo da Saliceto (ö. 1277), XIV. yüzyılın en önemli cerrahı olan ve Chirurgia Magna ’yı yazan Guy de Chauliac (ö. 1368) ve Fabricius ab Aquapendente (ö. 1619), eserlerinde ve uyguladıkları cerrahî metotlarında tamamen Zehrâvî’nin eserinden faydalanmışlardır.
Türkler kurmuş oldukları hastahanelerde cerrahlara ve kehhâllere (göz cerrahları) ayrı kadrolar tahsis etmişlerdir. Bu durum gerek Selçuklu gerekse Osmanlı tıp müesseselerinde böylece devam etmiştir. Genellikle Arapça ve Farsça tıp kitaplarından istifade eden bu dönem cerrahları, eski metotları uyguladıkları gibi cerrahlığa orijinal katkılarda da bulunmuşlardır. İlk Türkçe cerrahî kitabı, Amasyalı Sabuncuoğlu Şerefeddin’in Cerrâhiyye-i İlhâniyye ’sidir (1465) ve Ebü’l-Kāsım ez-Zehrâvî’nin eserinin “Maḳāle fî ʿameli’l-yed” bölümünden esinlenerek hazırlanmıştır. Sabuncuoğlu, esere kendi görüşlerini eklemesinin yanında ayrıca ameliyat ve dağlama sahneleriyle cerrahlık aletlerini de minyatürlerle resmetmiştir. Yazar cerrahlığı tarif ederken, “Geldik ey tabîb şol söze kim bu a‘mâl-i cirâha vardır, kesmekten ve delmekten ve yakmaktan ibarettir” demektedir. Eserde cerrahlığın hemen her dalından ameliyat örnekleri ayrıntılarıyla anlatılmaktadır (geniş bilgi için bk. CERRÂHİYYE-i İLHÂNİYYE ). Bu eserden başka, geldikleri ve oturdukları yerlerin coğrafî konumu sebebiyle Hind’i, Çin’i ve Batı’yı çok iyi tanıyan Türkler’in Selçuklu ve Osmanlı dönemlerinde gerek eski Yunanca, Arapça ve Farsça’dan tercüme, gerekse Türkçe telif şeklinde birçok cerrahnâme kaleme alınmıştır. Mukbilzâde Mü’min’in 841 (1437) yılında II. Murad’a ithaf ettiği Zahîre-i Murâdiyye adlı eseri, saray hekimlerinden Bursalı Ali Efendi’nin Dârüssaâde ağası Beşir Ağa adına yazdığı Cerrâhnâme ve Cerrah Mesud’un Farsça’dan çevirdiği Terceme-i Hulâsa fî fenni’l-cirâha ile el-Umde fî sınâati’l-cerrâhîn bunların en önemlilerindendir. Fakat Osmanlı tıbbında cerrahnâme denince akla ilk gelen eser, Cerrah İbrâhim’e ait Alâim-i Cerrâhîn adlı tercüme eserdir. Bu eserin aslı, II. Bayezid’in Mora seferi sırasında Modon Kalesi’nde ele geçirilen Eflâtun, Galen, Hipokrat ve İbn Sînâ’nın görüşlerini ihtiva eden Yunanca ve Süryânîce yazılmış Çindar isimli bir kitaptı. Cerrah İbrâhim bu kitaba, XIV-XV. yüzyılın ünlü Türk hekimlerinden Hacı Paşa, Akşemseddin, Beşir Çelebi, Hekim Şirvânî ve Sabuncuoğlu Şerefeddin’den yaptığı alıntılarla kendi tecrübe ve görüşlerini de ilâve ederek eserini meydana getirmiştir. Yirmi iki bölümden oluşan kitabın bir bölümü, diğer cerrahnâmelerden farklı olarak ok ve tüfek yaraları ile tedavilerine dairdir.
Türkiye’de modern cerrahî eğitimi, 1832’de Topkapı Sarayı içinde Cerrahhâne-i Âmire’nin kurulmasıyla başlar. Bu müessese 1836 yılında Tıbhâne ile birleştirilerek Otlukçu Kışlası’na taşındı ve Mekteb-i Tıbbiyye adını aldı. Daha sonra da bugün Galatasaray Lisesi’nin bulunduğu yerdeki Enderun Ağaları Mektebi’nin binasına nakledildi ve II. Mahmud’un meşhur nutku ile açılan bu okula Mekteb-i Tıbbiyye-i Adliyye-i Şâhâne adı verildi; ilk otopsi dersleri de bu okulda yapılmıştır. 1909 yılında Haydarpaşa’daki binada birleştirilen askerî ve mülkî (sivil) tıbbiyeler Tıp Fakültesi adını aldı. Tıp fakülteleri bu tarihten itibaren diğer branşların yanında cerrahlık eğitimini de sürdürmektedirler. Türkiye’de cerrah yerine operatör terimi ilk defa Cemil Topuzlu Paşa (1868-1958) tarafından kullanılmıştır.
Hekimbaşı Seyyid Mehmed Çelebi’nin 1625’te yazdığı Enmûzecü’t-tıb adlı eserin anatomiyle ilgili bölümünde verilen bilgilerden, anatomi öğrenmek için savaşta ölenler üzerinde teşrih (otopsi) yapılabileceği anlaşılmaktadır. Yine İbnü’n-Nefîs’in XIII. yüzyılda küçük kan dolaşımını keşfetmesi ve İbnü’l-Kuf’un anatomi çalışmaları, her ikisinin de ölüler üzerinde araştırma yapmış olduklarını gösterir. Haçlı seferleri sırasında Türk-İslâm hekimlerinin savaş alanından topladıkları düşman ölüleri üzerinde çeşitli çalışmalar yaptıkları bilinmektedir.
İslâm cerrahîsi başlangıçta İran ve Grek cerrahîsinden etkilenmiş ve bu etkilenme özellikle sistematik olarak yapılan tercümeler yoluyla başlamıştır. Fakat mesele bu tercümelerle bitmemiş, aynı konudaki çeşitli eserlerin karşılaştırılması sonucu yanlışlar düzeltilmiş, ilâveler yapılmış ve bunun da ötesinde orijinal eserler meydana getirilmiştir. Bütün kaynakların ittifak ettikleri gerçek şudur ki Ortaçağ boyunca İslâm cerrahları Avrupalılar’dan daima çok ileride bulunmuşlar ve Batı’da Rönesans’tan sonra görülen ilerlemenin öncüleri olmuşlardır. Cerrahî en önemli hamlelerini İslâm ülkelerindeki cerrahların elinde yapmıştır. Anestezi altında sezaryenden katarakt ameliyatına kadar birçok müdahaleyi başarabilmiş ve orijinal cerrahî eserleri kaleme almış olan müslüman cerrahların geliştirdikleri birçok alet de zamanla değişerek günümüze kadar ulaşmıştır.
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a.mlf. – [T. Sarnelli], “D̲j̲arrāḥ”, EI2 (İng.) , II, 481-482.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1993 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 7. cildinde, 421-423 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
Osmanlılar’da Cerrahlık Mesleği. Cerrahlık Osmanlılar’da maharet ve tecrübe isteyen bir meslek dalı olarak görülürdü ve cerrah daha çok bir sanat erbabı sayılırdı. Bu sebeple cerrahlık mesleği, ya sarayda ehl-i hiref teşkilâtına bağlı olarak veya usta bir cerrahın yanında yahut babadan oğula geçen bir sanat şeklinde öğrenilirdi. Cerrahlar dârüşşifâlarda, saraylarda, orduda veya “dükkân” denilen muayenehanelerinde çalışırlardı. Yara ve çıban tedavisi, fıtık rahatsızlıklarının iyileştirilmesi, diş çekimi, kan alma, sünnet gibi müdahaleler cerrahın meşgul olduğu başlıca işlerdi. Saray cerrahları ayrıca Enderun’a alınacak devşirmelerin ve hadım ağalarının muayenelerini de yaparlardı. Bunların âmirine sercerrâhîn-i hâssa veya cerrahbaşı denirdi. Ordu cerrahlığına saray cerrahlarının en yeteneklisi, dârüşşifâlara ise usta ve tecrübeli cerrahlar tayin edilirdi. Buralarda çalışan birinci cerraha günde ortalama 7-8 akçe, ikinci cerraha ise 3-4 akçe ücret verilirdi. Dârüşşifâlarda görevlendirilen cerrahlarda görevlerini ihmal etmeme, hastalara karşı şefkatli ve merhametli olma gibi belirli ahlâkî özellikler de aranırdı.
Bîrun ağalarından olan saray cerrahları ehl-i hiref teşkilâtına bağlı idiler. Bu teşkilâtta ayrı bir cemaat oluşturan cerrahlar, Enderun’un müteferrika cemaati içinde iken almaya başladıkları “mukaddemât-ı ulûm” derslerini tamamladıktan sonra gerek saray dahilinde gerekse dışarıda yapacakları hizmetler gereği nazarî ve uygulamalı eğitimlerini sürdürürlerdi. Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Arşivi’ndeki ehl-i hiref mevâcib defterlerinde, çeşitli yıllarda ehl-i hiref teşkilâtına bağlı olarak görev yapan cerrah, üstat, şâkird ve müteferrikaların isimleri, aldıkları yevmiye miktarları ve kimlikleri hakkında bilgiler vardır. Bu defterlere göre meselâ 1525’te cerrahların mevcudu kırk beş, şâkirdlerin mevcudu ise beş iken 1596’da cerrah sayısının yetmiş dokuz, şâkirdlerinin ise otuz üç kişi olduğu görülmektedir. XVII. yüzyılda saray cerrahlarının mevcudu kırk elli civarında idi. Evliya Çelebi, dışarıda özel muayenehanesi olan cerrah esnafının 700 kişi olduğunu ve İstanbul’da 400 cerrah dükkânı bulunduğunu yazmaktadır. Ona göre cerrahlar esnaf resmigeçitlerine katılırlar, tahtırevanlar üzerinde kerpeten, mengene, küskü, testere, eğe vb. çeşitli cerrahî aletler dizip bazı adamların kollarını, başlarını, ayaklarını tedavi ederek gösteri yaparlardı (Seyahatnâme , I, 532).
Cerrahlar zaman zaman tabip, kehhâl ve attarlar gibi hekimbaşı tarafından imtihan edilir, yeterli bulunanlara hekimbaşının mührünü taşıyan bir izin belgesi verilir, cerrahlıktan anlamayanlar ise cezalandırılırdı.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Fâtih Mehmed II. Vakfiyeleri , Ankara 1938, s. 249.
K. Edib Kürkçüoğlu, Süleymaniye Vakfiyesi , Ankara 1962, s. 41.
Evliya Çelebi, Seyahatnâme , I, 532.
O. Şevki Uludağ, Beşbuçuk Asırlık Türk Tıp Tarihi , İstanbul 1925, s. 149-150, 222.
Ahmed Refik [Altınay], Onuncu Asr-ı Hicrîde İstanbul Hayatı , İstanbul 1933, s. 89.
a.mlf., Onbirinci Asr-ı Hicrîde İstanbul Hayatı , İstanbul 1931, s. 8-9, 44-45.
a.mlf., “Fâtih Devrine Aid Vesikalar”, TOEM , y. 9, s. 7.
Uzunçarşılı, Kapukulu Ocakları , I, 405-406.
a.mlf., Saray Teşkilâtı , s. 316, 358, 364, 368, 430, 464.
Vecihe Kılıcoğlu, Cerrahiye-i İlhaniye , Ankara 1956, s. 18.
Nimet Taşkıran, Hasekinin Kitabı , İstanbul 1972, s. 134.
Nil Akdeniz, Osmanlılarda Hekim ve Deontoloji , İstanbul 1979, s. 64-65, 144, 146-148, 157, 159-161, 164.
a.mlf., “Osmanlılarda Tıphanenin Kuruluşuna Kadar Tıp Eğitimi”, TDA , sy. 22 (1983), s. 152-182.
a.mlf. (Nil Sarı), “Toptaşı Nurbanu Valide Sultan Dârüşşifası”, Birinci Türk Tıp Tarihi Kongresi , İstanbul 17-19 Şubat 1988, Ankara 1992, s. 171.
Ratip Kazancıgil, 1362-1920 Yılları Arasında Edirne İlindeki Sağlık Kurumları ve Bu Kurumlarda Çalışan Personel , İstanbul 1981, s. 34.
Süheyl Ünver, “Fatih Külliyesine Ait Diğer Mühim Bir Vakfiye”, VD , I (1938), s. 39-45.
a.mlf., “Fâtih Zamanı Cerrahları Hakkında”, Dirim , sy. 9, İstanbul 1949, s. 3-4.
Rıfkı Melûl Meriç, “Osmanlı Tabâbeti Tarihine Ait Vesikalar”, TV , I/16 (1955), s. 37-113; a.e. , II/17 (1958), s. 267-293.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1993 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 7. cildinde, 423-424 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.