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CİNS Skip to content Mantık ve fıkıhta kullanılan bir terim.
1/2 Müellif: HASAN KATİPOĞLU Bölüme Git
MANTIK. “Asıl, nevileri ihtiva eden mahiyet” anlamındaki cins, mantıkta tümel varlık veya kavramları ve bunlar arasındaki ilişkiyi ifade eden beş küll…
2/2 Müellif: ALİ BARDAKOĞLU Bölüme Git
FIKIH. Cins terimi ve cins-nevi ayırımı mantık ilminin alanına girmekle birlikte mantık ve dil kurallarıyla yakın bağlantısı olan İslâm hukuk usulünde…
MANTIK. “Asıl, nevileri ihtiva eden mahiyet” anlamındaki cins, mantıkta tümel varlık veya kavramları ve bunlar arasındaki ilişkiyi ifade eden beş küllî nin ilki ve en kapsamlı olanıdır. Mantık tarihinde beş küllîyi oluşturan kavramlar ilk defa Aristo tarafından ele alınmış, Plotinus’un öğrencisi Porphyrios Aristo’nun Kategoriler’ine giriş olarak yazdığı Îsâġūcî adlı eserinde beş küllîyi daha ayrıntılı ve sistemli bir şekilde incelemiş, İslâm mantıkçıları beş küllî ve buna bağlı olarak cins hakkındaki görüş ve açıklamalarında esas itibariyle kısmen Aristo’dan ve daha çok da Porphyrios’tan faydalanmışlardır.
Aristo Metafizika ’da cins teriminin başlıca dört anlamından söz eder. 1. Cins öncelikle, “aynı forma sahip olan varlıkların sürekli meydana gelişi” (génération) anlamında kullanılır. Meselâ, “İnsan cinsi varlığını sürdürdükçe…” sözü, “İnsanların üremesi devam ettikçe…” anlamını ifade eder. 2. “Varlıkların kendisinden türediği şey veya ilk ata”ya da cins denir. 3. Bir başka anlamda “düzlem” düz şekillerin, “geometrik cisim” de çeşitli türdeki geometrik cisimlerin cinsidir. 4. Tümeller arasında, diğer bütün tümelleri içine alan “ilk tümel”e de cins denir. Cins bakımından ayrı olan şeyler, yakın özneleri yani maddeleri birbirinden farklı olan şeylerdir. Buna göre meselâ form ve maddeden her biri birer cinstir. Aynı şekilde Aristo cevher, nicelik, nitelik ve diğer kategorilere giren varlıkları da maddeleri farklı, dolayısıyla birbirine veya başka bir cinse irca edilemeyen ayrı cinsler kabul etmiştir (La Métaphysique , 1024a , 25-1024b , 20).
Îsâġūcî ’de cins terimi, “tek bir varlığa ve bu tek tek varlıkların da aralarındaki ilgiye göre belirli bir biçimi olan bireylerin topluluğu; her şeyin doğuşunun çıkış noktası; türün altında sıralandığı şey” olmak üzere üç şekilde tarif edilmiştir. Porphyrios, filozofların incelediği cinsin son anlamdaki cins olduğunu belirterek onların bunu, “hayvan” örneğinde olduğu gibi “özelde farklı olan şeylerin çokluğuna uygulanabilen asıl yüklem” şeklinde tarif ettiklerini söyler (Isagoge , s. 32-33).
İslâm mantık tarihinde cins terimi ilk defa geniş olarak Fârâbî tarafından incelenmiştir. Fârâbî, beş küllîyi etraflı bir şekilde ele aldığı Kitâbü’l-Elfâẓi’l-müstaʿmele fi’l-manṭıḳ adlı eserinde (s. 70) cins terimini, “Tür bakımından farklı olup, ‘bu nedir?’ sorusuna cevap teşkil edebilen birden çok varlık için kullanılan küllîdir” şeklinde tarif etmiş, bu tarif aynı veya yaklaşık ifadelerle İbn Sînâ ve diğer mantıkçılar tarafından da tekrar edilmiştir (meselâ bk. İbn Sînâ, s. 14; Gazzâlî, Miʿyârü’l-ʿilm , s. 76). İbn Sînâ tarifi açıklarken “tür bakımından farklı olan” ifadesinin “formları ve öz gerçeklikleri farklı olan” anlamına geldiğini belirtir. Meselâ “hayvan” ve “bitki” türlerine göre “canlı” terimi bir cinstir; çünkü bu terimin kapsadığı “hayvan” ve “bitki” farklı formlara ve özel gerçekliklere sahiptirler. Daha açık bir ifade ile, “Bu nedir?” sorusuna cevap olarak verilen tümel kavramlar içinde kapsamı dar olanına tür, türe göre kapsamı daha geniş olanına cins denir. Meselâ, “Ahmet, Mehmet nedir?” sorusuna “insandır” ve “canlıdır” şeklinde iki cevap verildiğinde bunların ilki (insan) diğerine göre daha dar kapsamlı olduğundan tür, ikincisi ise (canlı) cinstir (Fârâbî, s. 66). Buna göre birbiriyle içlem ve kapsam ilişkisi bulunan iki terimden kapsayan terim cins, onun kapsamına giren terim ise türdür. Ancak bir cins, kendisini kapsayan daha üstteki bir cinse göre tür de olabilir.
İslâm mantıkçıları daha özel ve dar kapsamlı cinslere “yakın cins” (el-cinsü’l-karîb), daha genel ve geniş kapsamlılara “uzak cins” (el-cinsü’l-baîd), en geniş kapsamlı cinse “yüksek cins” (el-cinsü’l-âlî), bir yakın cins ile bir uzak veya yüksek cins arasında kalan cins veya cinslere de “orta cins” (el-cinsü’l-mutavassıt, el-ecnâsü’l-mutavassıta) adını vermişlerdir. Bu şekilde bir yüksek cins, orta cinslerle bunların altındaki türleri ve bu türlere giren tek tek varlıkları (şahıslar) kapsadığından ona “cinslerin cinsi” de (cinsü’l-ecnâs) denilmiş ve bunun başka herhangi bir cinsin altında yani kapsamında gösterilemeyeceği belirtilmiştir. En yakın cinsin kapsamına giren şeyler ise artık bir alt türe göre cins olmayıp sadece tek tek varlıkları kapsayan tür olarak kalırlar; bu sebeple de bunlara “türlerin türü” (nev‘u’l-envâ‘) denir (Fârâbî, s. 66-67, 70-71; İbn Sînâ, s. 15; Gazzâlî, Miʿyârü’l-ʿilm , s. 76-77).
Aristo gibi (bk. La Métaphysique , 1034b , 5-10) İslâm mantıkçıları da kategorileri yüksek cinsler kabul ederek “on cins” (el-ecnâsü’l-aşere) adını verdikleri bu yüksek cinslerden ilkinin cevher , diğerlerinin de (nicelik, nitelik, izâfet, yer, zaman, durum, mülkiyet, fiil, infial) araz olduğunu belirtmişlerdir (bk. MAKŪLÂT ).
İslâm filozofları Aristo’nun görüşünü devam ettirerek bütün küllîler gibi cinslerin de zihnin dışında reel (bilfiil) varlıkları bulunmadığını, bunların sadece zihnin soyutlamalar yoluyla oluşturduğu bilgiler olduğunu savunmuşlardır. Buna göre akıl, dış dünyadan edinilen idrakler sayesinde tek tek varlıklardan başka çeşitli varlık kategorileri halinde tümel varlıklar tasarlar, genel ve tümel kavramlar oluşturur. Bu tümel kavramların en geniş kapsamlısı cinstir. Böylece bir varlık cinsi hakkındaki tümel bilgi tek tek varlıklar hakkındaki cüz’î bilgilerden farklıdır. Meselâ duyu belli bir insanı algıladığı anda akıl gücü bu belli insandan başka olan mutlak insanı, yani küllî ve cins olarak insanı kavramış olur. Bu özel niteliklere sahip, belli bir durum ve konumda olan tek tek insandan ayrı zihnî bir gerçekliktir. Diğer bütün tümel kavramlar için de durum böyledir.
Kelâmcılar filozofların bu görüşlerine katılmamışlardır. Zira onlara göre filozofların “küllîler” dedikleri şeyler cüz’î varlıkların “haller”i olup akılda her bir ferdî varlığın duyular tarafından algılanmış kendine mahsus hallerinden başka ayrıca bir küllî kavram bulunmaz. Biri büyük, diğeri küçük iki el görüldüğünde bundan mutlak ve küllî bir kavram olarak el değil değişik hal ve sıfatlarıyla cüz’î eller bulunduğu bilgisine ulaşılır; farklı bir ikinci el gören insanın zihninde ilk elin formu aynıyla canlanmayıp bütün özel nitelik ve halleriyle ikinci bir el canlanır (Gazzâlî, Tehâfütü’l-felâsife , s. 257-259). Bu suretle kelâmcılara göre zihinde ancak tek tek nesnelere dair özel bilgiler bulunur ve bu bilgiler içinde içlem ve kapsam münasebeti olanlar cins veya nevi adını alır; yoksa zihin dış dünyadan edinilen intibalardan, cüz’î varlıklara dair özel bilgilerden farklı olarak ayrıca bir de cins veya nevi gibi küllî varlık kavramları oluşturmaz (bk. KÜLLÎ ).
Cinslerin sonlu olup olmadıkları problemi de filozoflarla kelâmcılar arasında tartışma konusu olmuştur. İbn Rüşd bu husustaki görüşleri üç noktada toplamıştır: 1. Kelâmcılar, yukarıdaki düşünceleriyle cinsler ve diğer tümellere dair bilgiler hakkında duyumcu bir anlayış sergilediklerinden cüz’î varlıklar gibi bunların cinslerinin de başlangıçlı ve sonlu olduklarını savunmuşlardır. 2. Filozoflar, sonlu olmayan bazı ferdî varlıklar bulunduğunu savunarak bunların cinslerinin de sonsuz yani ölümsüz olduğunu, ancak bunların sonluluğunun sayı bakımından tek olan bir illete (Tanrı’ya) bağlı bulunduğunu, aksi halde bu cinslerin sonsuz zaman içinde sürekli yokluğa mâruz kalmaları gerektiğini düşünmüşlerdir. 3. Dehrîler ise bu cinslerin fertlerinin sonsuz olmasının kendilerinin de sonsuzluğuna yeterli bir sebep teşkil ettiğini, bunun için ayrıca bir zorunlu illete ihtiyaç olmadığını savunmuşlardır. Bu tartışmada kelâmcılar, bütün fert ve cinslerin sonluluğu görüşleriyle filozoflarla Dehrîler’den ayrılmışlar, ancak Dehrîler’in aksine eşyanın varlığını sürdürmesinde zorunlu bir illete muhtaç olduğu hususunda da filozoflarla birleşmişlerdir (İbn Rüşd, Tehâfütü’t-Tehâfüt , s. 283-284).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Tehânevî, Keşşâf , “cins” md.
Aristote, La Métaphysique (trc. J. Tricot), Paris 1981, 1024a , 25-1024b , 20, 1034b , 5-10.
Porphorios, Isagoge (trc. Betül Çotuksöken), İstanbul 1986, s. 31-34.
Fârâbî, Kitâbü’l-Elfâẓi’l-müstaʿmele fi’l-manṭıḳ (nşr. Muhsin Mehdî), Beyrut 1986, s. 66-75.
İbn Sînâ, en-Necât (nşr. M. Takī Dânişpejuh), Tahran 1364 hş., s. 14-15, 149, 153-157.
Gazzâlî, Tehâfütü’l-felâsife (nşr. Süleyman Dünyâ), Kahire 1334/1955, s. 257-259.
a.mlf., Miʿyârü’l-ʿilm , s. 76-78.
İbn Rüşd, Tehâfütü’t-Tehâfüt (nşr. S. J. Maurice Bouyges), Beyrut 1930, s. 283-284.
a.mlf., Telḫîṣu Kitâbi’l-Maḳūlât (nşr. Mahmûd Kāsım), Kahire 1980, s. 81, 93-96.
a.mlf., Tefsîru Mâ Baʿde’ṭ-ṭabîʿa , II, 678-684.
B. Carra de Vaux, “Cins”, İA , III, 193-194.
S. Von Den Berg, “D̲j̲ins”, EI2 (Fr.) , II, 563-564.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1993 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 8. cildinde, 18-20 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
FIKIH. Cins terimi ve cins-nevi ayırımı mantık ilminin alanına girmekle birlikte mantık ve dil kurallarıyla yakın bağlantısı olan İslâm hukuk usulünde, hukuk doktrininde ve hukukî-fer‘î meselelerin çözümünde de sıkça kullanılır. Cins, aralarında ortak bağ ve özellikler bulunan fertleri ve alt sınıfları kategorik olarak toplayan üst terim veya alta göre daha genel bir üst kavramdır. Felsefe ve mantıkta eşyanın hakikat ve mahiyetinden hareketle bir tanım ve sınıflandırma yapıldığından cins daha teknik ve özel bir anlam taşır. İslâm hukukçularının cins tabiriyle kastettikleri de cinsin dil ve mantıktaki anlamından fazla bağımsız değildir.
İslâm hukukçuları arasında hâkim görüşe göre cins, mahiyet yönünden değil hüküm ve maksat yönünden farklı şeyleri toplayan tümellerdir (“insan” kelimesi gibi). Bu tanımın devamı olarak nevi de “amaç yönünden beraberlik arzeden birden fazla şeyi ifade eden tümeller” şeklinde anlaşılır. “Kadın” ve “erkek” kelimeleri böyledir. Cins-nevi ayırımında bazan sadece amaç, bazan da hem amaç hem hüküm yönüyle farklılık-birlik ölçü alınır. Meselâ Hanefî hukuk ekolünde İmam Muhammed’in cinsi belirlerken amaç yönünden, Ebû Yûsuf’un ahkâm yönünden farklılığı, Ebû Hanîfe’nin ise şekil ve mâna yönünden birliği ölçü aldığı kaydedilir. Ancak bu ve benzeri ölçülerin meselâ sirke ile şarabın veya köle ile hür kimsenin tek cins mi, yoksa iki ayrı cins mi sayılacağı ve bunun akidlerin kuruluşu ve borçların ifasına etkisinin ne olacağı gibi fıkhî tartışmalardan çıkarıldığı göz ardı edilmemelidir.
Usulcülerin cinsi tanımlamaları ve örneklendirmeleri mantıkçılarınkine yakın görünmekle birlikte arada bazı farklılıklar da vardır. Meselâ mantıkçılar eşyanın zât, hakikat ve mahiyetini esas alarak canlıya cins, insana ise nevi derler. Usulde ise daha çok şer‘î maksat ve ahkâmla ilişki ön planda tutulduğundan insana cins, erkek ve kadına da nevi denilmiştir. İslâm hukuk doktrinine ve fürûa gelince, hukukçular mantıkçıların cins ve nevi ayırım ve örneklendirmelerine bağlı kalmaksızın, kelimenin daha çok sözlük kullanımından hareketle, alt türleri ve cinsleri toplayıcı konumundaki grup ve kategori isimlerine, nevi ve sınıflara da cins tabir etme temayülündedirler. Bu sebeple cins ve nevi terminolojisinin ve ayırımının İslâm hukukunda düzenli bir tanım ve belirlilik kazandığını söylemek güçtür. Ayrıca hukukta ele alınan her meselenin farklı bir tahlil usulü ve gayesi olabilmekte, bir şeyin cins veya nevi olması da alana ve bakış yönüne göre değişebilmektedir. Meselâ “erkek” ve “kadın”ı maksat ve hükümlerdeki farklılıklar sebebiyle cins saymak da, insan oluştaki birlik sebebiyle “insan”a göre nevi saymak da mümkündür. Bundan dolayı Mecelle ’nin cinsi mantık ve hukuk usulünde yaygın tarifin aksine, “şâmil olduğu efrad arasında fâhiş farklılık olmayan şeydir” (md. 140) şeklinde tarif etmesi, konu borçlar hukuku açısından düşünüldüğünde yerindedir.
Borçlar hukukunda, akdin konusu olan ifa maddî bir şeye ve o şeyin tek başına sahip olduğu özellik ve işaretlere göre tayin edildiği takdirde “parça borcu”ndan, ifanın konusunu teşkil eden şey bir cins ve nevin özellik ve niteliklerine göre belirlenmişse “cins borcu”ndan söz edilir. Akid konusunun, bilinmezliği giderecek ve anlaşmazlığa yol açmayacak ölçüde cins, nevi ve miktar olarak belirlenmesi (vasfen tayin), İslâm hukukçularının çoğunluğuna göre yeterlidir. İmam Şâfiî ayrıca görmeyi de şart koşar. İlgili tarafın akid konusu malı gördüğünde ayrıca görmekten doğan muhayyerlik hakkının olup olmadığı ise tartışmalıdır. İslâm hukukçularının bu konudaki titizliği ve ayrıntıdaki görüş farklılıkları, akidde tarafları bilinmedik ve beklenmedik bir yük veya zararla karşı karşıya bırakmama gayesiyle izah edilebilir.
Cins borçları mislî eşyada söz konusudur ve borçlu kural olarak o cins ve nevin mûtat ve ortak kalitesiyle ifada bulunur. Esasen ortak nitelik ve özellik taşıyan ve aralarında belirgin bir fark olmayan şeylerin tek bir cins sayılması da (Mecelle , md. 140, 1468) akdin ve ifanın sağlama bağlanmasını, tarafların haklarının korunmasını hedef alır. Bu sebeple de alışveriş, selem, vekâlet, mehir, vasiyet, vakıf gibi akid ve hukukî işlemlere, gasp ve itlâf gibi haksız fiillere konu olan malın cins ve nevi olarak tayini, ifa ve tazmini gibi hususlar öteden beri İslâm hukukçularının ayrıntılı olarak üzerinde durduğu konulardır.
Faizin kapsamı ve çeşitleriyle ilgili hadislerin en önemlilerinden biri olan “eşyâ-yı sitte hadisi”nde (Buhârî, “Büyûʿ”, 78; Müslim, “Müsâḳāt”, 81-84) Hz. Peygamber altı sınıf maldan söz eder. Bunlardan altın ve gümüş tartı ile, buğday, arpa, hurma ve tuz ise ölçü ile mübadele edilen mallar olarak zikredilmiştir. Hadiste sayılanların her biri ayrı cins mal olduğundan ve yine bazı rivayetlerde, “Sınıflar (cinsler) değişince istediğiniz gibi satın, yeter ki peşin olsun” denilmesinden hareketle Hanefî ve Hanbelîler faizde illetin cins birliği, ölçü ve tartı birliği olduğunu kabul etmişlerdir. Burada cinsten maksat da borçlar hukukundaki cins anlayışına uygun olarak altın, gümüş, buğday, arpa, hurma gibi malların her biridir. Bu malların alt nevileri arasındaki farklılık dikkate alınmaz. Şâfiî ve Mâlikîler ise bu cinsleri mübadele vasıtası olmaları (semeniyyet) veya yiyecek olmaları (taâmiyyet) gibi üst bir kategoride toplarlar. Bu görüş mantıkçıların ve usulcülerin cins anlayışına daha yakın sayılabilir.
İnsan, erkek, at gibi cins ve nevi ifade eden lafızlar, İslâm hukuk usulünde vazolunduğu mâna itibariyle hâs lafız grubunda mütalaa edilir. Çünkü bunların her biri yalnızca kendine ait tek bir mâna ifade etmektedir.
Arap dilinde ismin başına gelen “cins lâmı”nın anlam ve delâletiyle ilgili olarak dilciler arasındaki tartışmalar hukuk usulcülerini de yakından ilgilendirir. Nitekim tekil veya çoğul bir ismin başına lâm-ı ta‘rif geldiğinde bu “lâm”ın ahd, istiğrak veya cins için olma ihtimalleri ve bunların öncelik sıralaması, cins için olan lâm-ı ta‘rifin umumu ifade edip etmediği kelâmcılarla Hanefî usulcüler arasında da tartışılmıştır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Meḳāyîsü’l-luġa , “cins” md.
Tehânevî, Keşşâf , “cins” md.
Buhârî, “Büyûʿ”, 78.
Müslim, “Müsâḳāt”, 81-84.
Nesâî, “Büyûʿ”, 50.
Fahreddin er-Râzî, el-Maḥṣûl , Beyrut 1988, I, 382-384.
Âmidî, el-İḥkâm , Kahire 1967, I, 18-19, 190-199.
Sadrüşşerîa, et-Tavżîḥ (Teftâzânî, et-Telvîḥ içinde), Beyrut, ts., s. 54.
Teftâzânî, Ḥâşiye ʿalâ Muḫtaṣari’l-Müntehâ , Bulak 1316 ⟶ Beyrut, ts., II, 258.
İbnü’l-Hümâm, Fetḥu’l-ḳadîr , Beyrut, ts., III, 238; VI, 146-148.
İbn Melek, Şerḥu’l-Menâr , İstanbul, ts., s. 13-14.
Şevkânî, İrşâdü’l-fuḥûl , Beyrut, ts., s. 105-106.
Ali Haydar, Dürerü’l-hükkâm , I, 233-234.
Mecelle , md. 140, 1468.
Bilmen, Kamus2 , VI, 12, 104-109.
F. Necmeddin Feyzioğlu, Borçlar Hukuku , İstanbul 1969, II, 17-19.
Selâhattin Sulhi Tekinay, Borçlar Hukuku , İstanbul 1971, s. 11.
Karaman, İslâm Hukuku , II, 124-127, 173-174, 204-212.
Abdülkerîm Zeydân, el-Vecîz fî uṣûli’l-fıḳh , Bağdad 1987, s. 306-307.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1993 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 8. cildinde, 20-21 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.