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1/2 Müellif: ÖMER FARUK HARMAN Bölüme Git
Dinlerde mekânın kutsallığına paralel olarak dağların ayrı bir önemi vardır. Dağların kutsal oluşu ve onlara karşı tâzimde bulunulması, Tanrı’ya en ya…
2/2 Müellif: AHMET YAŞAR OCAK Bölüme Git
Eski Türkler’de Dağ Kültü. Ortadoğu ve özellikle Asya kavimlerinde, bu arada çeşitli Türk boylarında mevcut dağ kültüyle ilgili klasik kaynaklarda hay…
Dinlerde mekânın kutsallığına paralel olarak dağların ayrı bir önemi vardır. Dağların kutsal oluşu ve onlara karşı tâzimde bulunulması, Tanrı’ya en yakın yerler olarak kabul edilmeleri, daha gelişmiş dinlerde ise Tanrı’nın yüceliğini ve aşkınlığını sembolize etmelerinden ileri gelmektedir. Dağların bulunmadığı yerlerde insanlar, yüce varlığa yakınlaşma ihtiyaçlarını çeşitli kuleler inşa ederek karşılamaya çalışmışlardır. Bâbil Kulesi, Mezopotamya’daki ziguratlar, Meksika’daki “teocalli” denilen piramitler bu amaca yönelik yapılardır. Hz. Mûsâ Firavun’u imana davet ettiğinde onun, “Ey ileri gelenler! Ben sizin için kendimden başka bir tanrı tanımıyorum. Ey Hâmân! Haydi benim için çamurun üzerinde ateş yak (tuğla imal et de) bana bir kule yap, belki Mûsâ’nın Tanrı’sına çıkarım” (el-Kasas 28/38; el-Mü’min 40/36) demesi bu eski telakkiyi yansıtmaktadır. Özellikle ilkel toplumlarda dağların kutsal sayılmasının bir diğer sebebi ilâhların ikamet ettikleri yerler olarak kabul edilmeleridir. Homeros’un naklettiğine göre ilâhlar sarp tepelerden iner, taraftarlarına yardım ettikten sonra tekrar oralara çıkarlar. Kaldeliler Aralu adını verdikleri dağda büyük ilâhlarının ikamet ettiğine inanırlardı. Grekler’deki Olimpos dağı tanrıların ikametgâhıdır. Diğer taraftan dağlar ulaşılamaz, uzak, ekseriya volkanik ve daima ihtişamlı olmaları sebebiyle Tanrı’nın kudret ve azametinin sembolü olmuştur. Ayrıca dağlar kutsal varlıkların veya ilâhların zuhur ve tecelli ettikleri, yahut ulûhiyyetle irtibata geçilen yerler olmaları bakımından da saygı görmüşlerdir. Çin imparatorları dağların zirvesinde kurban takdim ediyorlardı. Sînâ dağı Yahudilik’te ve İslâm’da Tanrı’nın tecelli ettiği ve Hz. Mûsâ ile konuştuğu yer olduğu için kutsaldır.
Kutsal dağ kültüne hemen hemen bütün ülke ve kavimlerde rastlamak mümkündür. Japonca’da ilâhları ifade eden kami kelimesi dağlar için de kullanılır. Fuji-Yama dünyanın ekseni kabul edilen kutsal dağdır ve hacılar belli temizlik kurallarına riayet ederek oraya çıkarlar. Çin’de dağların ruhları olduğuna inanılır ve bunlara tapılır, özellikle K’ouen Iouen dünyanın ekseni kabul edilir. P’outcheou yer altı dünyasına açılan dağdır. Ayrıca ülkenin doğusunda bulunan T’aichan da kutsaldır. Taoistlere göre K’ouen Iouen’e aynı zamanda “dünyanın merkezinin dağı” da denir. Güneş ve ay onun çevresinde döner. Bu dağ ölümsüzlüğün mekânıdır ve ölümsüzler orada yaşar. Kişiyi semaya götüren yol olduğu için bu dağ taoistlerin sığınağıdır. Brahmanizm’in kutsal kitabı Rig Veda dağlara yapılan bir yakarışı ihtiva eder. Uzakdoğu kültüründe Himalaya dağların kralı ve en kutsal dağ, Meru dünyanın ekseni, Kailâsa Tanrı Şiva’nın ikametgâhıdır. Tibet inançlarında kutsal dağlar semanın direkleri veya yerin kazıkları, hatta ülkenin ilâhları, mekânın efendileri olarak kabul edilmektedir.
Dünyanın merkezini teşkil eden kutsal dağ inancı Ural-Altaylar’da, Cermenler’de, hatta Malakka pigmeleri gibi ülke ve toplumlarda da görülür. Mezopotamya’da merkezî bir dağ gökle yeri birleştirmektedir. Ahd-i Atîk’te Gerizim dağı yeryüzünün merkezi olarak adlandırılmıştır (Hâkimler, 9/37). Hıristiyanlara göre Îsâ’nın çarmıha gerildiği yer olan Calvaire (Ârâmîce Golgota) tepesi dünyanın merkezinde bulunmaktadır ve hem semavî dağın zirvesi hem de Hz. Âdem’in yaratıldığı ve defnedildiği yerdir.
İbrânîce’de hâr , Ârâmîce’de tûr “dağ” anlamındadır. Bu ikinci kelime dağ için kullanıldığı gibi sıradağlar, bir ülkenin dağlık bölgesi ve tepeler için de kullanılmaktadır. Ahd-i Atîk’te gerek dağ ve yüksek mekânların önemi, gerekse çeşitli sebeplerle kutsal kabul edilen birçok dağla ilgili bilgi vardır. Kitâb-ı Mukaddes’te zikredilen önemli dağlardan bazıları şunlardır: Ararat dağları (Tekvîn, 8/4), Seir dağı (Tekvîn, 14/6), Sînâ dağı (Çıkış, 19/11), Horeb dağı (Çıkış, 3/1), Fârân dağı (Tesniye, 33/2), Nebo dağı (Tesniye, 32/49), Sion dağı (Tesniye, 4/48), Gerizim dağı (Tesniye, 11/29), Zeytinlik dağı (Zekarya, 14/4; Matta, 24/3).
İsrâiloğulları bölgeye gelmeden önce Filistin’de yaşayan yerli halkların inançlarında yüksek dağ ve tepeler önemli yer tutuyor ve insanlar buralarda ilâhlara ibadet edip kurban sunuyorlardı. Ken‘ânîler’in bu tür kutsal yerleri, bölgenin daha sonraki sahipleri olan İsrâiloğulları zamanında da kutsiyetini devam ettirdi. Tesniye hukuku, “Milletlerin ilâhlarına tapındıkları bütün yerleri yıkınız” (12/2) diyerek bu yerlerin kutsallaştırılmasını ve oralarda ibadet edilmesini yasakladı; Şekem veya Kudüs’teki mâbed dışında Yahve’ye (Yehova) kurban sunulmasını menetti. Fakat İbrânîler çeşitli ilâhlara tahsis edilen bu tür mekânları her zaman yıkmamış (Hâkimler, 2/2), hatta kendileri de Yahve’ye yüksek yerlerde tapınmışlardır (I. Samuel, 9/12-14; I. Krallar, 3/2-5). Diğer taraftan yahudilerin dinî tarihlerinde cereyan eden bazı olaylar sebebiyle çeşitli dağlar diğerlerine göre ayrı bir önem kazanmış, saygı ve tâzime konu olmuştur. Bunların başında Sînâ dağı gelmektedir.
Nablus’un güneyinde yer alan ve bugün Cebelüssümerâ denilen Gerizim dağı da Sâmirîler’ce kutsal kabul edilmektedir. Tevrat’ta Hz. Mûsâ kavmine arz-ı mev‘ûd a girdiklerinde bereketi Gerizim dağına, lâneti Ebal dağına koymalarını vasiyet etmiş (Tesniye, 11/26-29), Yeşu da bunu yerine getirmiştir (Yeşu, 8/3335). Şimeon, Levi, Yahuda, İssakar, Yûsuf ve Benyamin sıbtları, yine Mûsâ’nın tâlimatı doğrultusunda bu dağa yerleşmişlerdir (Tesniye, 27/11-12). Büyük İskender döneminde veya daha önce Sâmirîler, Kudüs’teki Süleyman Mâbedi’ne nazîre olmak üzere Gerizim dağı üzerine bir mâbed inşa etmişler, bu mâbed Sâmirîler’in hem millî hem de dinî merkezi olmuştur. Hz. Îsâ ile Sâmiriye’de karşılaşan kadının, “Atalarımız bu dağda tapındılar ve siz, tapınılması gereken yer Yeruşalim’dedir, dersiniz” (Yuhanna, 4/20) şeklindeki sözü de bunu teyit etmektedir.
Tevrat’a göre Seir dağı önce Horiler’in, daha sonra da Esavoğulları’nın oturduğu yerdir (Tesniye, 2/12). Yine Tevrat’ta, “Rab Sînâ’dan geldi ve onlara Seir’den doğdu; Paran dağından parladı” (Tesniye, 33/2) ifadesi yer alır. “Rabbin parladığı” Paran dağının Fârân dağı olduğu ve Mekke’de bulunduğu söylenir (bk. FÂRÂN ).
Siyon, üzerinde Kudüs’ün yükseldiği tepelerden birinin adıdır. Kudüs’ün daha önceki halkı olan Yebusîler’in bir kalesinin bulunduğu bu tepe Hz. Dâvûd tarafından zaptedilmiş, bundan dolayı buraya “Dâvûd şehri” denilmiştir (II. Samuel, 5/7). Hz. Dâvûd ahid sandığı nı bu şehre nakletmiş, ondan sonra da burası kutsal sayılmıştır. Hz. Süleyman’ın mâbedi inşa ettiği Moriya tepesi de aynı yerdedir. Mâbedin inşası ile ahid sandığının mâbede naklinden sonra Siyon adı mâbedi ifade eder olmuştur. Aynı adı taşıyan yarımadanın güneyinde bulunan Sînâ dağı, Tanrı ile kırk günlük buluşması sonunda Hz. Mûsâ’ya şeriatın (Tevrat) verildiği yerdir (Çıkış, 19/11, 18, 20). Bu dağa Ahd-i Atîk’te Horeb adı da verilir (Çıkış, 17/6; 33/6; Tesniye, 1/2, 6, 19; 4/10). Hz. Mûsâ Medyen’den dönüşünde Tanrı ilk defa kendisine bu dağda hitap etmiş (Çıkış, 3/1), İsrâiloğulları’nı Mısır’dan çıkardıktan üç ay sonra ulaştıkları bu dağda, başta on emir olmak üzere (Çıkış, 20/1-17) diğer dinî hükümler (Çıkış, 20/18-Sayılar, 10) bildirilmiş, Tanrı o dağa inmiştir (Çıkış, 17/6; 19/11, 16-18). Bu dağa aynı zamanda “Tanrı’nın dağı” da denilmektedir (Çıkış, 3/1; 4/27; 18/5; 24/13; I. Krallar, 19/8). Ahd-i Atîk’te bir de “Tanrı’nın dağları” ifadesi yer almaktadır (Mezmurlar, 36/7).
Kur’an’da Nûh’un gemisinin indiği yerin Cûdî dağı olduğu bildirildiği halde Tevrat’ta bu yer Ararat dağları diye adlandırılmaktadır. Ararat dağları Batılılar’ca Ağrı dağı olarak kabul edilmekte ve Ermeniler’ce Ağrı dağı kutsal sayılmaktadır (bk. AĞRI DAĞI ).
Hıristiyanlık’ta da kutsal kabul edilen dağlar vardır. Hz. Îsâ’nın dua için inzivaya çekildiği (Matta, 14/23), “dağ vaazı” da denilen meşhur nutkunu irat ettiği (Matta, 5), havârilerinin gözleri önünde görünümünün değiştiği, yüzünün güneş gibi parladığı ve esvabının ışık gibi ak olduğu dağ (Matta, 17/1-2), insanların gözü önünde semaya çıktığı Zeytinlik dağı aynı şekilde kutsal kabul edilen dağlardandır.
Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de dağların, yeryüzünün kazıkları olarak (en-Nebe’ 78/7) sapasağlam çakılıp (en-Nâziât 79/32) dikildikleri (Gāşiye 88/19), Allah’ın insanlar için dağlarda oturulacak barınaklar yaptığı (en-Nahl 16/81), Semûd kavminin dağlarda evler yonttuğu (el-A‘râf 7/74; el-Hicr 15/82; eş-Şuarâ 26/149), ilâhî emanetin dağlara verildiği, ancak dağların bunu kabul etmediği (el-Ahzâb 33/72), dağların Allah’ı tesbih ettikleri (el-Hac 22/18) ve Hz. Dâvûd’un Allah’ı tesbihine katıldıkları (el-Enbiyâ 21/79; Sebe’ 34/10; Sâd 38/18), kıyamet gününde dağların yürütüleceği (el-Kehf 18/47; et-Tûr 52/10; el-Vâkıa 56/5; el-Hâkka 69/14; el-Meâric 70/9; el-Müzzemmil 73/14; el-Mürselât 77/10; en-Nebe’ 78/20; et-Tekvîr 81/3; el-Kāria 101/5) ve ufalanıp savrulacağı (Tâhâ 20/105) bildirilmektedir.
Kur’an’da dağ karşılığı kullanılan cebel-cibâl kelimesinin yanında yine aynı anlama gelen, fakat sadece Sînâ dağı için kullanılan “tûr” kelimesi de mevcuttur. Allah Tûrisînâ’ya yemin etmektedir (et-Tûr 52/1; et-Tîn 95/2). Hz. Mûsâ’nın Allah’ı görmek istemesi üzerine Allah bu dağa tecelli etmiş ve dağ parçalanmıştır (el-A‘râf 7/143). Allah Hz. Mûsâ’ya Tûr’un sağ tarafından seslenmiş (Meryem 19/52; Tâhâ 20/80; el-Kasas 28/29, 46), İsrâiloğulları’ndan söz alınması sebebiyle üzerlerine Tûr kaldırılmış (el-Bakara 2/63, 93; en-Nisâ 4/154; el-A‘râf 7/171), Tûrisînâ’da yetişen ağaç methedilmiştir (el-Mü’minûn 23/20).
Diğer taraftan Hz. Peygamber’in, kendisine vahiy gelmeden önce ibadet ve tefekkürle vakit geçirdiği ve ilk vahyin geldiği mağaranın bulunduğu Hira dağı da müslümanlara göre kutsaldır. Rivayete göre Hz. Peygamber, yanında ashabından bir grup olduğu halde bu dağın üstüne çıkmış, o sırada dağ sallanınca, “Ey Hira sakinleş! Zira üzerinde nebî veya sıddîk veya şehid bulunmaktadır” (Müsned , V, 346) demiştir. Buna benzer bir rivayet de Uhud dağı için nakledilir (Müsned , III, 112; IV, 274, 275; VI, 17; Müslim, “Zühd”, 73; Ebû Dâvûd, “Büyûʿ”, 29). Hz. Peygamber Uhud dağını işaret ederek şöyle demiştir: “Bu dağ bizi sever, biz de onu severiz” (Buhârî, “İʿtiṣâm”, 16, “Cihâd”, 71, 74, “Eṭʿime”, 28, “Zekât”, 54, “Enbiyâʾ”, 10). Hac farîzasının temel rükünlerinden biri olan vakfenin ifa edildiği Arafat dağı da kutsaldır. Arafat ve Müzdelife, Hz. Âdem ile Havvâ’nın cennetten yeryüzüne indirildiklerinde ilk karşılaştıkları yer olarak da kabul edilir (Yâkūt, IV, 104-105).
İslâm’da bazı dağların çeşitli sebeplerle ayrı bir tâzime konu oluşu, sadece oralarda cereyan eden dinî olaylarla ilgili olup hiçbir zaman dağlara tanrısal bir hüviyet atfedilmemiş ve buralar tapınma konusu yapılmamıştır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Müsned , III, 112; IV, 274, 275; V, 346; VI, 17.
Buhârî, “İʿtiṣâm”, 16, “Cihâd”, 71, 74, “Eṭʿime”, 28, “Zekât”, 54, “Enbiyâʾ”, 10.
Müslim, “Zühd”, 73.
Ebû Dâvûd, “Büyûʿ”, 29.
Yâkūt, Muʿcemü’l-büldân , IV, 104-105.
A. Legendre, “Montagne”, DB , IV/2, s. 1254-1258.
M. Eliade, Traité d’histoire des religions , Paris 1949, s. 321-324.
a.mlf., Le Sacré et le profane , Paris 1965, s. 35-39.
a.mlf., Histoire des croyances et des idées religieuses , Paris 1984, III, 276-277.
J. Chevalier – A. Gheerbrant, “Montagne”, Dictionnaire des symboles , Paris 1969, s. 645-649.
G. Van der Leeuw, La Religion , Paris 1970, s. 43-44.
NDB , s. 510.
W. L. Reed, “Mount, Mountain”, IDB , II, 452.
G. E. Wright, “Sinai, Mount”, a.e. , III, 376-378.
Diana L. Eck, “Mountains”, ER , X, 130-134.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1993 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 8. cildinde, 400-401 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
Eski Türkler’de Dağ Kültü. Ortadoğu ve özellikle Asya kavimlerinde, bu arada çeşitli Türk boylarında mevcut dağ kültüyle ilgili klasik kaynaklarda hayli zengin malzeme mevcuttur. Çin, Bizans ve Arap kökenli bu kaynaklardan çıkan sonuca göre Orta Asya’da Türkler’in yaşadıkları hemen her bölgede mutlaka dağ kültü bulunmaktadır. Buralardaki dağların çoğu, Türkçe’de “mukaddes, büyük ata, büyük kağan” anlamına gelen Han Tanrı, Buztağ Ata, Bayın Ula vb. isimler taşımaktadır. Her boyun, her oymağın kendine mahsus bir kutsal dağı olduğu gibi bunlardan oluşan birliklerin de ortak kutsal dağları bulunuyordu. Meselâ Han-Yoan dağı, Hunlar’ın her yıl üzerinde Gök Tanrı’ya kurban kestikleri mukaddes bir dağdı. Hunlar Çinliler’le yaptıkları başarılı anlaşmaları Hun dağı denilen başka bir kutsal dağda kutluyorlardı. Han Tanrı’nın ikamet ettiği Tanrıdağları da (Tien Şan) kutsaldı. VII. yüzyılda Göktürkler dahil bütün Türk boyları Ötüken adındaki ormanlarla kaplı dağı mukaddes biliyorlardı; hakanın çadırı burada bulunuyordu. “Ülkenin koruyucu ruhu” anlamında Budun İnli adını taşıyan ve Ötüken’in batısında bulunan bir başka dağ da aynı şekilde kutsal sayılıyordu. Bunlardan başka Göktürkler’in İdik Baş, Tamag İduk adında iki kutsal dağı daha mevcut olup İduk Yer-Su adıyla takdis ediliyorlardı.
Meşhur İslâm coğrafyacılarından Gerdîzî, Çiğiller’in ülkelerindeki bir dağı takdis ettiklerini, yeminlerini onun üstüne yaptıklarını ve Tanrı’nın bu dağ üzerinde bulunduğuna inandıklarını söyler. XI. yüzyılda Kâşgarlı Mahmud da putperest (şamanist ve Budist) Türkler’in tabiatta gördükleri her ulu varlığı, bu arada özellikle yüce dağları ve tepeleri devamlı takdis ve bunlara secde ettiklerini yazar. XII. yüzyıla ait yazarı meçhul Arapça bir coğrafya kaynağında ise Uygurlar’ın yüksek bir dağa dua edip kurban kestikleri ve her yıl bunu tekrarladıkları kaydedilmektedir.
Dağ kültünün XIII. yüzyılda Moğollar’da da mevcut olduğu görülmektedir. Eski bir Moğol rivayetine göre Cengiz Han, bir savaşta başı sıkışınca düşmanlarından kurtulmak için Burkan Haldun adındaki dağa sığınmış ve kurtulmuştu. Buna şükran olarak dağa kurban sunan Cengiz Han, bundan böyle bu uygulamanın devam ettirilmesini istemişti. Moğollar’daki Burkan Haldun dağ kültünün böyle teşekkül ettiği anlaşılmaktadır. Bu şekilde takdis edilen dağların isimleri hem Türkler hem de Moğollar arasında günlük konuşmalarda kesinlikle anılmaz, onun yerine Kayırkan, Boğda, Öndür gibi genel adlar kullanılırdı.
Eski Türkler ve Moğollar’daki bu dağ kültünün zamanımızda Altay kavimlerinde de bulunduğu, dolayısıyla aynı coğrafî sahada yüzyıllar boyunca kuvvetli bir şekilde devam edegeldiği görülmektedir. Katanov, Anohin ve Harva gibi çağdaş araştırmacılar, buralardaki Türk topluluklarında yaşayan dağ kültleri hakkında bilgi ve müşahedelerini bize aktarmaktadırlar. Onların verdiği bilgilere göre günümüzde Altaylar’daki dağ kültü gelişerek göğün bizzat kendisinde bulunan ve ilâhların mekânı olan kozmik bir dağ inancını doğurmuştur. Altaylı Tatarlar’a göre Tanrı Bayülgen yaldızlı semavî bir dağın üstünde oturmaktadır. Yakutlar’da ise yine ilâhların ikametgâhı olan -Eski Yunanlılar’daki Olimpos gibi- kozmik bir dağın varlığına inanılmaktadır.
Bütün bu inançların gereği olarak Altaylar’da oturan çeşitli Türk kavimleri arasında bu dağlara kurbanlar sunulmakta, takdis âyinleri yapılmaktadır. Başkırtlar’ın da Ural dağlarını takdis ettikleri gözlenmiştir. Meselâ bunlar içinde Tura Tav (dağ) denileni çok kutsaldı ve adak adayıp kurban kesmeden bu dağa kesinlikle çıkılmazdı. Abdülkadir İnan, Kazan Türkleri’nde de Hocalar Tavı denilen kutsal bir dağın bulunduğunu, burada bazı kurbanlı âyin ve merasimlerin yapıldığını bildirmektedir. Kazan Türkleri, Hocalar Tavı’nın yüksek bir bölümünü Arafat, diğer bazı kesimlerini de Ebû Kubeys ve Mina diye adlandırmışlardır. Dinler tarihi ve din sosyolojisi açısından ilginç olan bu durum, Anadolu’da Hacıbektaş ilçesinde Hacı Bektâş-ı Velî’nin tekkesine yakın yüksekçe bir tepe için de söz konusudur. Zira bu tepenin adı da Arafat dağıdır. Bu örnekler, müslüman olduktan sonra Türkler’in belirli ölçüde diğer inançlarında olduğu gibi dağ kültüyle ilgili inançlarını da takdis ettikleri yerlere İslâm’ın doğduğu coğrafyadaki dağ adlarını vererek bir anlamda İslâmlaştırmak suretiyle yaşatmaya çalıştıklarını göstermektedir.
Türkler’in Anadolu’ya yerleşmeye başladığı XI. yüzyıldan itibaren buradaki bazı dağlar ve yüksek tepeler de dağ kültüne konu olmuş, buraları tıpkı Orta Asya’da iken olduğu gibi, ancak bu defa İslâmî bir görünüm altında mübarek mekânlar olarak telakki edilmiş, özellikle Bektaşî ve Alevî zümreler tarafından büyük bir önemle takdis edilmeye başlanmıştır.
Bu takdis olayı, yine Türkler arasında çok köklü bir inanç olan atalar kültü sayesinde âdeta halk Müslümanlığının temeli haline gelmiş bulunan evliya kültü ile birleşerek sürdürülmüş ve halen de aynı kuvvette devam ettirilmektedir. Bunun sonucunda, İslâmî inanç ve geleneklere göre normal olarak defin için kullanılmayan dağ ve tepe başları yüzyıllar boyunca Anadolu’da halkın takdis ettiği, kimliği meçhul evliya mezar veya türbeleriyle donatılmıştır. Bu konuda yapılan araştırmalarda, çok defa buralardaki mezarlarda gerçek bir şahsiyetin gömülü bulunmadığı, dolayısıyla dağ ve tepelerde mevcut olduğuna inanılan üstün güç veya ruhların evliya şeklinde şahıslandırıldığı sonucuna varılmıştır. Hatta bu tür evliyalı veya yatırlı dağ ve tepelerle ilgili inançların bir kısmının Türk öncesi Anadolu inançlarından intikal ettiği de düşünülebilir.
Eski Türkler’deki bu dağ kültüyle ilgili inançlar evliya menkıbeleri, destanlar ve efsaneler gibi şifahî kültür ürünlerine de yansımış, zamanla yazıya geçirilen bu ürünlerde dağ kültleriyle ilgili motifler açık bir şekilde yer almıştır. Kitâb-ı Dede Korkut , Dânişmendnâme , muhtelif evliya menâkıbnâmeleri, Köroğlu Destanı , Âşık Garip , Âşık Kerem gibi halk hikâyeleri bu örnekler arasında sayılabilir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1993 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 8. cildinde, 401-402 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.