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DÂRÜSSULH Skip to content Kendisiyle barış antlaşması yapılmış ülke için kullanılan fıkıh terimi.
İslâm devletiyle barış münasebetleri bozulan veya bilfiil savaş halinde bulunan ülkeler, kendileriyle sulh antlaşmaları yapılması durumunda bu antlaşmaların mahiyetine göre farklı isimler alırlar. İslâm hukukunda hâkim telakkiye göre devletler arası münasebetlerde normal olan durum barış halidir. Fıkıh bilginlerinin çoğunluğuna göre savaşın hukukî mesnet ve sebebi, müslüman olmayan ülkelerin müslümanlara savaş açmasıdır. İslâm’a göre savaş zaruret icabı başvurulan geçici bir durum olup müslüman bir ülke ile düşmanca münasebetler içine giren ülkelerle ilişkilerin normale dönmesi için gerek savaş öncesi gerekse savaş sırasında barış yollarına başvurmak, karşı tarafın barış istemesi halinde bunu kabul etmek Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’in emridir (bk. el-Enfâl 8/61). Hanefî hukukçularının açıkça belirttiği gibi savaşın hedefi, düşmanın mukavemet ve üstünlüğünü kırarak tecavüzleri önlemek (Zeylaî, III, 245; İbnü’l-Hümâm, V, 204), müslümanların emniyet içinde din ve dünya işlerini yürütme imkânına kavuşmalarını sağlamaktır (Serahsî, X, 3, 5). Bu sebeple savaşa girişmeden önce veya savaş sırasında antlaşmalarla bu sonuca ulaşmak mümkün olduğu takdirde savaştan kaçınılır. Müslüman hukukçular, İslâm ülkesiyle (dârülislâm) düşmanca münasebetler içinde bulunan devletlerle barış ilişkilerini düzenleyen antlaşmaları iki kategoride mütalaa etmişlerdir.
1. Geçici Antlaşmalar. İslâm hukuku kaynaklarında muvâdea, muhâdene, müsâleme, musâlaha, muâhede, hüdne, sulh ve silm gibi terimlerle ifade edilen geçici antlaşmaların yapılabilmesi, sebeplerinin ortaya çıkması halinde ittifakla câizdir. Bu antlaşma türüyle ilgili olarak “düşmanla belli bir süre savaşı terk hususunda bir şey karşılığında veya karşılıksız yapılan antlaşma”, “savaşı terk üzere yapılan muâhede”, “müslümanın harbî ile İslâm’ın hükmü altında bulunmaksızın bir süre mütareke üzerine yaptığı akid” gibi tarifler yapılmıştır (bk. Özel, s. 214-215). Bu tür antlaşmaların temel özelliği, gayri müslim ülkenin İslâm hâkimiyetini kabul etmemesi ve İslâm devletinin kontrolü altına girmemesidir. Bir diğer ifadeyle böyle bir ülke İslâm hukukunun tatbik sahası dışındadır. Hanefî, Mâlikî ve Hanbelî hukukçularına göre bu antlaşmalar için belli bir süre sınırı yoktur. Şâfiîler’e göre ise on yıldan fazla süre için yapılamaz, fakat sürenin bitiminde yenilenebilir. Bu antlaşma ile dârüssulh haline gelen ülke halkının (ehl-i sulh) can ve mallarına tecavüz haram olup antlaşma süresince kendileriyle savaşılmaz. Bu tür geçici antlaşmalar Hanefîler’e göre gerektiğinde bozulabilir. Mâlikî, Şâfiî ve Hanbelî hukukçularına göre ise süre bitimine kadar antlaşmaya bağlı kalmak gerekir. Ancak karşı tarafın antlaşmayı bozacağı anlaşılırsa tek taraflı olarak bozulabilir.
2. Sürekli Antlaşmalar. Savaştan önce veya savaş sırasında İslâm devletiyle barış içinde yaşayacağına dair bir teminat ve İslâm hâkimiyetine boyun eğdiği hususunda bir işaret olmak üzere cizye vermesi karşılığında gayri müslim bir ülke ile yapılan antlaşmalar bu kısma girer. Böyle bir antlaşmanın yapılabilmesi için şu iki şartın benimsenmesi gerekir: a) Cizye ödemeleri; b) Kendilerine İslâm hükümlerinin uygulanması (İslâm hâkimiyetini kabul etmeleri). Bir zimmet akdi olan bu antlaşmanın İslâm devleti tarafından ihlâl ve iptali câiz olmadığı gibi devlet bu tür bir antlaşma teklifini kabul etmek mecburiyetindedir. Kendileriyle antlaşma yapılan ülke halkına ehl-i zimme (ehl-i ahd) denir. Bu statüdeki ülke İslâm devletinin hâkimiyetinde olmakla birlikte yönetim ve iç işlerinde serbesttir; bu ülkeyi dışa karşı savunmak İslâm devletinin görevidir. Bu tür antlaşmaları yapmaktan maksat, Hanefî hukukçularının açıkça ifade ettiği gibi müslümanlara karşı açılmış olan savaşı bertaraf etmek ve düşmanın müslümanlarla barış içine girmesini sağlamaktır (Molla Hüsrev, I, 299; İbn Nüceym, V, 125). Fıkıh kaynaklarında geçici antlaşmalara örnek olarak Hudeybiye Antlaşması, sürekli antlaşmalara örnek olarak da Hz. Peygamber’in Necran, Eyle, Hecer, Bahreyn, Cerbâ ve Ezruh halkıyla yaptığı antlaşmalar gösterilir.
Bu antlaşma türlerine bağlı olarak ortaya çıkan barış ülkelerine (dârüssulh) müslüman hukukçuların genel olarak verdikleri adlar ve bu ülkelerle ilgili görüşleri de şöyledir:
Dârülahd. Hanbelî hukukçuları ile Şâfiîler’den Mâverdî amme hukuku yönünden yaptıkları arazi tasnifinde, mülkiyetin İslâm devletine veya kendileriyle antlaşma yapılan gayri müslimlere ait olmasından hareketle ülkeleri belli bir ayırıma tâbi tutmuşlardır. Bunlara göre müslümanların eline geçen araziler dört kısma ayrılır. a) Kuvvet ve fetih yoluyla alınan topraklar. b) Ahalisinin terketmesi sebebiyle elde edilen topraklar. Bu iki toprak da sakinleri ister müslüman ister gayri müslim olsun mülkiyeti müslümanlara ait olduğundan dârülislâmdır. Barış antlaşması yoluyla elde edilen topraklar da iki kısımdır. c) Yapılan antlaşma ile mülkiyeti müslümanların ortak malı sayılan ve bir haraç karşılığında gayri müslim ahalisine bırakılan topraklar. Bu antlaşma ile onlar ehl-i ahd, toprakları da dârülislâma ait vakıf arazi haline gelir. Bu araziden alınan haraç ücret hükmündedir; müslüman olmaları veya arazinin bir müslümana geçmesi halinde düşmediği gibi ayrıca baş cizyesi vermeden orada bir yıldan fazla kalamazlar. d) Yapılan antlaşma ile mülkiyeti kendilerinde kalmak üzere bir haraç karşılığında gayri müslim ahalisine terkedilen topraklar. Bu araziden alınan haraç cizye hükmünde olup müslüman olmaları veya arazinin bir müslümana geçmesi halinde düşer. Bu topraklar bir önceki durumun aksine dârülislâm değil dârülahddir. Antlaşmaya uydukları sürece orada kalırlar, dârülislâm dışında oldukları için kendilerinden ayrıca baş cizyesi alınmaz. Bu son kısmın dârülislâm sayılmaması arazi hukuku yönündendir; ülkenin mülkiyeti müslümanlara ait olmadığından dârülislâm sayılmamıştır. Halkıyla zimmet akdi yapılmış bulunan bu ülkeye, kendileriyle dârülharpten farklı olarak sürekli bir barış hali mevcut olduğu için dârülahd adı verilmiştir. Ancak İslâm devletinin kontrol ve hâkimiyeti söz konusu olduğunda bu ülkenin dârülislâm sayılması gerekir. Nitekim Şâfiî fakihleri, ahalisiyle barış yapılan bu iki tür ülkenin de dârülislâm olduğunu belirtmişlerdir (Şirbînî, II, 422; İbn Hacer el-Heytemî, VI, 350; Remlî, V, 454). Çünkü her ne kadar ülke gayri müslimlere aitse de İslâm devletinin hâkimiyeti altındadır (Şirbînî, IV, 232, 254). Ayrıca kendilerine İslâm ahkâmını uygulama şartı koşulmaksızın cizye üzerinde barış yapılması mümkün değildir (Şâfiî, IV, 99, 104, 127).
Dârülahd ahalisinin antlaşmayı bozması halinde, Şâfiîler’e göre ülke yeniden fethedilecek olursa fetihle elde edilen toprakların hükmünü alır, fethedilmezse dârülharp olur. Hanbelîler’e göre ülke yeniden fethedilirse iki görüş söz konusudur. Bir görüşe göre antlaşma ülke hakkında bozulmuş sayılmayacağı için topraklar dârülahd hükmünde kalır, diğer görüşe göre ise fetihle alınan topraklar statüsüne geçer. Ülkenin yeniden fethedilememesi halinde ülke dârülharp olur.
Dârüzzimme ve Dârülmuvâdea. Hanefî hukukçuları, kendileriyle yapılan barış antlaşmasının mahiyetine göre antlaşmalı gayri müslim ülkeleri iki grupta mütalaa ederler. a) Dârüzzimme. Kendileriyle sürekli bir antlaşma (zimmet akdi) yapılan ülkeler bu gruba girer. Müslümanlar tarafından fethedilmeden önce halkı ile cizye karşılığında barış yapılan ve dârüzzimme diye adlandırılan bu ülke, İslâm devletinin hâkimiyeti altında bulunduğundan dârülislâm sayılır. İmam Mâlik de bu konuda Hanefîler’le aynı görüşü paylaşır. b) Dârülmuvâdea. Kendileriyle geçici barış antlaşması yapılan ülkeler bu gruba girer. Yapılan antlaşma ile karşılıklı olarak cana ve mala yönelik tecavüzlere son verilip barışa girilir. Ancak İslâm devletinin hâkimiyeti altında bulunmadığından dârülislâm sayılmayan bu ülkelere dârülmuvâdea yanında dârüleman da denir.
Daha önce işaret edildiği gibi Şâfiî, Mâlikî ve Hanbelî fakihleri de gayri müslimlerle geçici antlaşmalar yapılacağı görüşündedirler. Söz konusu fakihler, Hanefîler’in dârülmuvâdea diye adlandırdıkları bu barış ülkesinden müstakil bir adla bahsetmeseler de bu antlaşma türüyle ilgili görüşleri onların bu ülkeler hakkındaki kanaatlerini de yansıtmaktadır.
Sonuç olarak Hanbelî hukukçularıyla Şâfiîler’den Mâverdî’nin, cizye karşılığında arazi mülkiyeti gayri müslim ahalisine bırakılan barış ülkesini dârülahd diye adlandırarak dârülislâm saymamaları, meseleye arazinin statüsü açısından bakış yapmalarından kaynaklanmaktadır. Hanefî fakihleri ise konuya İslâm devletinin hâkimiyeti noktasından bakmakta ve dârüzzimme adını verdikleri bu barış ülkesini dârülislâmdan kabul etmektedirler. Meseleye İslâm devletinin hâkimiyeti açısından bakıldığı takdirde Şâfiî ve Hanbelî fakihlerinin de aynı görüşte oldukları görülür. Dârülahdi dârülislâmdan saymaları sebebiyle Hanefîler’in dârülislâm ve dârülharp dışında, müslümanlarla aralarında sulh münasebeti bulunan üçüncü bir ülke taksimini kabul etmediklerine dair bazı müelliflerin ileri sürdüğü iddia (Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam , s. 144-145; a.mlf., Law in the Middle East , I, 359-360; EI2 [İng.] , II, 116, 131) gerçeğe uymamaktadır. Bu iddia, Batılı yazarların cihad konusunda gerçeği yansıtmayan görüşleri ve dârüssulh ile ilgili yanlış değerlendirmelerinden kaynaklanmıştır (Özel, s. 226-227).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Ebû Yûsuf, el-Ḫarâc , s. 72, 78, 139, 141, 154-155, 224.
Şâfiî, el-Üm , IV, 99, 104, 118, 127.
Mâverdî, el-Aḥkâmü’s-sulṭâniyye , Kahire 1386/1966, s. 137-138, 147-148.
Ebû Ya‘lâ, el-Aḥkâmü’s-sulṭâniyye , s. 130-133, 148-149.
Şîrâzî, el-Müheẕẕeb , II, 254, 260-261, 264.
Serahsî, el-Mebsûṭ , X, 3, 5, 86, 88.
Kâsânî, Bedâʾiʿ , VII, 108-109.
İbn Rüşd, Bidâyetü’l-müctehid , I, 330.
Zeylaî, Tebyînü’l-ḥaḳāʾiḳ , Bulak 1313, III, 245.
İbn Kudâme, el-Muġnî , X, 517; XI, 583-584.
İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, Aḥkâmü ehli’ẕ-ẕimme (nşr. Subhî es-Sâlih), Dımaşk 1381/1961, II, 475-476.
İbnü’l-Hümâm, Fetḥu’l-ḳadîr (Kahire) , V, 204-205.
İbn Nüceym, el-Baḥrü’r-râʾiḳ , V, 85, 125.
Şirbînî, Muġni’l-muḥtâc , II, 422; III, 195; IV, 232, 242, 253, 254, 260.
İbn Hacer el-Heytemî, Tuḥfetü’l-muḥtâc , Kahire 1315, VI, 350; IX, 275.
Remlî, Nihâyetü’l-muḥtâc , Kahire 1967, V, 454; VI, 301.
Haraşî, Şerḥu Muḫtaṣarı Ḫalîl , III, 146-147, 150-151.
el-Fetâva’l-Hindiyye , II, 197, 234.
Hacvî, el-İḳnâʿ , Kahire 1351, II, 40, 42.
Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam , Baltimore 1955, s. 144-145.
a.mlf., “International Law”, Law in the Middle East (nşr. M. Khadduri – H. J. Liebesny), Washington 1955, I, 349-372.
Ahmet Özel, İslâm Hukukunda Ülke Kavramı , İstanbul 1991, s. 213-228.
Halil İnalcık, “Dār al-ʿAhd”, EI2 (İng.) , II, 116.
D. B. Macdonald – A. Abel, “Dār al-Ṣulḥ”, EI2 (İng.) , II, 131.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1994 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 9. cildinde, 5-6 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.