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DEFTER Skip to content İslâm ve Türk devlet bürokrasisinde çeşitli kayıtların tutulması için kullanılan evrakın bir araya getirilmiş şekli.
Yazı yazmak üzere bir kenarı dikilerek veya ciltlenerek birçok kâğıdın birbirine bağlanmasından meydana gelir. Çoğulu defâtir dir. Defter çok yapraklı olabileceği gibi ikiye katlanmış, iç kısmındaki bir yüzü yazılmış kâğıt şeklinde de olmaktadır. Aslı Grekçe olup “post, hayvan derisi” anlamına gelir. Kelime eski Yunan’da parşömen, genel olarak da yazı malzemesi için kullanılmıştır. Herodotos, milâttan önce V. yüzyılda İyonyalılar’ın ve kendi çağdaşı birçok kavmin yazı yazmak için deri kullandığını ve papirüs tomarlarına diphthera denildiğini belirtir. Kelime, İslâm öncesinde İran yolu ile Arapça’ya, daha sonra da Türkçe’ye geçmiştir.
İslâm’ın ilk devirlerinde üzerine Kur’an âyetlerinin, hadislerin ve hâtıraların yazıldığı deri, kemik, ağaç yaprağı gibi malzemeler kullanıldığı, çok daha sonra da yazma eserlerin ortaya çıktığı görülür. Halife Hz. Ömer devrinde Medine’de ilk maliye dairesi kurulunca burada muharip askerlerin yoklama ve maaş kayıtlarının tutulmasına başlandı. Ancak bu kayıtların hangi malzemeler kullanılarak tesbit edildiği kesin olarak bilinmemekte, bunların Mısır’ın fethinden sonra papirüs üzerine yazıldığı tahmin edilmektedir. Doğuda eski Sâsânî vilâyetlerinde ise kayıtların evvelce olduğu gibi deri üzerine yazıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Bu tür belgelere başlangıçta “divan” denilmiş, sonradan bu tabir kayıtların tutulduğu dairenin adı olmuştur. Abbâsî Devleti’nin başlangıcında Horasan’da askerlerin maaş listelerini ihtiva eden belgelere defter denilmeye başlanmış, Halife Ebü’l-Abbas es-Seffâh zamanında Vezir Hâlid b. Bermek, merkezî idarede münferit sayfalar yerine defter kullanılmasını benimsemiştir. Hârûnürreşîd devrinde ise Vezir Ca‘fer b. Yahyâ el-Bermekî kâğıt kullanımını kabul etmiş ve yaygınlaştırmıştır. Buna rağmen Mısır’da X. yüzyıla kadar yazı malzemesi olarak papirüs rağbet bulmuştur.
İslâm âleminde merkezî idarede kullanılan defter türleri hakkında bilgi veren ilk eser, Muhammed b. Ahmed el-Hârizmî’nin X. yüzyılda kaleme alınan Mefâtîḥu’l-ʿulûm adlı ansiklopedik kitabıdır. Müellifin Nîşâbur’da Sâmânîler sarayında idarî bir görevi olduğundan verdiği bilgiler de bu devlete ait olmalıdır.
Hârizmî’nin sözünü ettiği defterler malî ve askerî olmak üzere iki grupta toplanabilir. Bunlardan maliyeye ait olanları, bütün devlet gelirlerinin kaydedildiği “kānûnü’l-harâc”, şahsî borçların yazıldığı “avârec”, günlük gelir gider kayıtlarının aktarıldığı “rûznâmec”, aylık gelir gider hesaplarının gösterildiği “hatme”, yıllık gelir gideri ihtiva eden “el-hatmetü’l-câmia”, ödemelere ait belgelerin kaydedildiği “te’rîc”, esas meblağ (asl) ile işlem göreni (istihrâc) ve aralarındaki farkı, altlarında toplamları ile birlikte sütunlar halinde gösteren “arîza”, cebhaz veya hâzin tarafından vergi mükelleflerine verilen belgelerin kaydedildiği “berâe”, âmilin düzenlediği umumi hesap defteri “el-muvâfaka ve’l-cemâa”dır. Askeriyeye ait defterler ise askerin soyunu, etnik menşeini, fizikî durumunu, ücretini belirten “el-cerîdetü’s-sevdâ’”, mu‘tî denilen maaş kâtibi tarafından düzenlenen ve bir nüshası divana verilen taşradaki askerlere ait hesap defteri “rec‘a”, ordu defterdarının hazırladığı genel hesap defteri “er-rec‘atü’l-câmia” vb. defterlerdir. Hârizmî, Irak’ta kâtipler tarafından kullanılan diğer üç defterden de söz eder ki bunlardan biri “dürûzen” adını taşıyan arazi ölçümlerine ait kayıtların yer aldığı defterdir.
Mısır’da Fâtımîler zamanında Dîvânü’r-resâil’de kâtiplik yapan Ebü’l-Kāsım İbnü’s-Sayrafî idarî muamelelerde kullanılan defterlerden bahseder. Bunların içinde, çok önemli yazışmaların kaydedildiği “tezâkir” adı verilen defterlerle mühim emirleri ihtiva eden yazışmalarda elkāb, dua gibi ibarelerin nasıl yazılacağını anlatan ve teşrifat kurallarını gösteren defterler vardı. Hârizmî’nin ve İbnü’s-Sayrafî’nin sözünü ettikleri defterlerden bazılarının Abbâsîler zamanında devletin doğu bölgelerinde kullanıldığı ve bütün Ortaçağ boyunca diğer İslâm devletlerine de örnek teşkil ettiği belirtilmektedir. Nitekim kaynaklarda adı zikredilmemekle birlikte Anadolu Selçukluları’nda Dîvân-ı Saltanat (Dîvân-ı A‘lâ) adlı büyük divanda ve askerî işlere bakan Dîvân-ı Arz’da defter tutulduğundan, fethedilen yerlerde arazi tahriri yapılarak bunlara ait defterler düzenlendiğinden ve ayrıca hazine mevcudu ile sarfiyatların, vilâyetlerin gelir gider durumunun kaydedildiği defterlerin mevcudiyetinden söz edilir.
İlhanlılar devrine ait defterlerle ilgili bilgiler, divan kâtiplerine resmî yazışma, muhasebe ve defter tutma usullerini öğretmek üzere kaleme alınan ve el kitabı niteliği taşıyan eserlerden öğrenilmektedir. Özellikle XIV. yüzyıldan kalma bu eserlere göre malî idarede kullanılan defterler şunlardır: 1. Rûznâmçe Defteri. Divanda kararlaştırılan hükümler ve verilen diğer resmî belgeler (ahkâm ve temessükât), muhtevalarındaki farklara bakılmaksızın geliş sırasına göre günü gününe bu deftere kaydedilirdi. Buna “defter-i ta‘lîk” adı da verilmiştir (Felek Alâ-yı Tebrîzî, Saʿâdetnâme , vr. 62b -63a ; Risâle-i Ṣâḥibiyye , s. 192-194). 2. Avârece Defteri. Rûznâmçe defterindeki kayıtların vilâyetlere ve gelir gider cinslerine göre ayrılarak yazıldığı defterdir. 3. Tevcîhat Defteri. Rûznâmçe defterindeki kayıtların kalemlere ve şahıslara ait olanlarının bir araya getirilmesinden meydana gelirdi. Buna “defter-i vücûb” da denmiştir (Göyünç, Das sogenannte Ǧame’o’l-Hesab des ‘Emād as-Sarāvī , s. 151). 4. Kanun Defteri. Her türlü vilâyet gelirleriyle damga ve benzeri gümrük resimleri bu deftere kaydedilirdi. “Defter-i kānûn-ı memleket” adı da verilen bu defterlerin (Abdullah b. Muhammed el-Mâzenderânî, s. 172) iki ayrı adla tutulduğu görülmektedir. Defter-i mâl vilâyet gelirlerinin, defter-i me’hûz veya defter-i darbiyye yalnız damga ve benzerinin kaydedildiği defterlerdi (Felek Alâ-yı Tebrîzî, Ḳānûnü’s-saʿâde , vr. 11b ; a.mlf., Saʿâdetnâme , vr. 62b ). 5. Mukarrer Defteri. Yılbaşından itibaren kesinleşmiş gelir ve giderlerin kaydedildiği, yıl sonunda bakiye kalırsa onun da sarfı cihetine gitmek için düzenlenen defterdir. Bu kayıtlar defter yerine tomara yazılırsa “muâmere” adını alırdı. Risâle-i Ṣâḥibiyye ’de geçen “defter-i mukarrer-i dîvân” tarife göre buna benzemektedir. Saʿâdetnâme ’de bahsedilen, içerisine sadece giderlerin yazıldığı “defter-i harc-ı mukarrer” ise (a.g.e. , vr. 63a ) mahiyet itibariyle ayrıdır. 6. Müfred Defter. Mukarrer defterdeki gelir giderin vilâyet ve şehirlere göre yalnız yekünlerinin yazıldığı defterdir. 7. Câmi‘ Defteri (Câmiu’l-hesâb Defteri). Yıl sonunda hazırlanan, devletin her türlü gelirleriyle bunların sarf mahallerinin kaydedildiği defterdir. Buna “defter-i târîh” de denilmektedir (Göyünç, Das sogenannte Ǧame’o’l-Hesab des ‘Emād as-Sarāvī , s. 155). Avârece defteri bunun için temel kaynak vazifesi görür. Bu defterin özetinin hükümdara takdim edilenine Moğolca’da “cankgî”, Herat’ta 1441’de “mecmû‘” adı verilirdi. 8. Tahvîlât Defteri. Hazine girdilerinin kimler tarafından gönderildiğini gösteren defterdir (Abdullah b. Muhammed el-Mâzenderânî, s. 122). Söz konusu el kitaplarından bu defterlerden büyük kısmının kullanıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Bunların hepsinde rûznâmçe ve avârece adını taşıyan defterlerin tanımı örnekleriyle yapılmakta, kanun, tevcîhat ve câmiu’l-hesâb adlı defterlerin tavsifine ise bazı el kitaplarında rastlanmaktadır.
Malî teşkilâtı başlangıçta İlhanlı tesirinde gelişen Osmanlı Devleti’nde de sistemli bir şekilde defter tutma usulü mevcuttu. Nitekim daha ilk dönemlerden beri defter tutulduğu ve bunların muhafaza edildiği anlaşılmaktadır (Kānunnâme , Âtıf Efendi Ktp., nr. 1734, vr. 12a ). Buna bağlı olarak Osmanlı Arşivi’nde XIV. yüzyıl başlarından itibaren defterlere rastlanmaktadır. Meselâ arazi tahrirlerine ait bugüne ulaşabilen en eski defter 835 (1432) tarihini taşır ve XVI. yüzyılda “mufassal”, “icmal” ve “timar rûznâmçe” olmak üzere sayıları binleri geçer. Ayrıca XVI. yüzyılda Divân-ı Hümâyun kalemlerine ait mühimme, ruûs, tahvil; defterdarlığa ait muhasebe, mukātaa, rûznâmçe, tamirat, keşif ve ahkâm; askerî teşkilâta ait mevâcib; vakıflara ait vakıf rûznâmçe defterleri ve benzerleriyle XVII. yüzyıldan sonra görülen şikâyet defterleri, devletin sınırlarının ve teşkilâtının zamanla büyümesi sonucu, bazıları evvelden mevcut, bir kısmı ihtiyaçtan doğan ve sayıları sadece Osmanlı Arşivi’nde yaklaşık 300.000’e ulaşan defter türlerini oluştururlar. Bunların dışında kazalarda kadılarca tutulan mahkeme kayıtları, merkezden gönderilen emirler ve mahallî kararların yazıldığı kadı sicilleri de önemli miktarlara ulaşmaktadır.
İslâm dünyasında muhtelif tarihlerde kurulan devletlerde, başka birçok müessesede de görüldüğü gibi defter türleri veya bunlara ilişkin tabirler arasında büyük benzerlikler vardır. Defterlerin bazan ismi -rûznâmçe gibi- aynen muhafaza edilir, kanun ve tahrir defteri örneklerinde olduğu üzere bazan da ismi değiştirilirdi. Tahrir defterlerinin başında vilâyet veya livâ kanunnâmelerinin bulunması da dikkat çekicidir. Ayrıca bu defterlerde ilk defterlere atıf yapılırken “defter-i köhne”, daha sonrakiler için “defter-i atîk”, son defter için de “defter-i cedîd” tabirleri kullanılmıştır. Bu benzerlikler aynı kültür temeline dayanmanın sonucu olarak ortaya çıkmıştır.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1994 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 9. cildinde, 88-90 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.