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DEVŞİRME Skip to content DEVŞİRME Osmanlı Devleti’nde çeşitli hizmetlerde kullanılmak üzere Osmanlı tebaası bazı hıristiyan çocuklarının bir kanun dahilinde toplanması işi.
Müellif: Abdülkadir Özcan
I. Murad döneminde kurulan Yeniçeri Ocağı’na asker temini için önce pencik kanunu gereğince gayri müslim genç savaş esirlerinden faydalanılmış, fakat zamanla fetihlerin azalması, Ankara Savaşı’ndan sonra da bir süre durması yüzünden devşirme yoluna başvurulmuştur. Daha önceki İslâm devletlerinde görülmeyen bu usulün Çelebi Mehmed zamanında (1413-1421) uygulandığı, ancak oğlu II. Murad devrinde (1421-1451) kanunlaştığı anlaşılmaktadır.
Kapıkulu ocaklarının nefer ihtiyacı yeniçeri ağası tarafından belirlenir ve Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’a arzedilirdi. Buradan çıkacak karara göre sekiz-yirmi yaş arasındaki gençlerden durumları elverişli olanlar devşirilirdi. Devşirme işi ihtiyaca göre üç, beş veya yedi yılda bir yapılırdı. Bu işin birinci derece sorumlusu yeniçeri ağası idi; ondan sonra Acemi Ocağı ağası gelirdi. Devşirme başlangıçta beylerbeyi, sancak beyi ve mahallî kadılar gibi ilgili bölgenin mülkî âmirleri tarafından yapılmıştır. Fakat zamanla bunların görevlerini kötüye kullanmaları üzerine Fâtih Sultan Mehmed döneminde devşirme işi bir esasa bağlanmış ve merkezden devşirme memurları gönderilmeye başlanmıştır. Bu memurlar başta turnacıbaşı olmak üzere saksoncubaşı, zağarcıbaşı, haseki vb. Yeniçeri Ocağı’nın yüksek rütbeli yayabaşılarından olur, maiyetlerinde de bir kâtip bulunurdu. Devşirme memurunun elinde işini nasıl yapacağını bildiren tâlimatnâme niteliğinde bir padişah fermanı ile (BA, MD , nr. 22, s. 292) devşirme yapılacak yerlerin kadılarına yazılmış yeniçeri ağasının imzasını taşıyan bir mektup bulunurdu (Uzunçarşılı, Kapukulu Ocakları , I, 97-100). Devşirme işi suistimale çok müsait olduğundan görevini kötüye kullanan, yani rüşvet karşılığında kanunun uygun görmediği kişileri veya birinin yerine bir başkasını devşiren memurlar şiddetle cezalandırılırdı (BA, MD , nr. 5, s. 123, 304). Nitekim Trabzon’da sahte padişah fermanı ile devşirme yapmaya kalkışan iki kişi elleri kesilmek suretiyle cezalandırılmıştır (BA, MD , nr. 2, s. 139). Devşirme ile görevli memurlar, padişah fermanı ve yeniçeri ağasının mektubu çerçevesinde işlerinde tamamen serbesttiler. Sancak beyi, kadı, timar sahibi vb. mahallî görevliler de devşirme memurunun işini kolaylaştırmakla yükümlü idiler.
Devşirme kanununda toplanacak çocukların nitelikleri belirtilmiştir. Buna göre hıristiyan çocuklarının asilleri, papaz oğulları, iki çocuktan sadece biri, birçok çocuğu bulunan ailenin en sağlıklı çocuğu seçilir, tek oğlu olanın çocuğu alınmazdı. Annesiz babasız çocuklar, aç gözlü oldukları bilinenler ve yüzü gözü açılmış olabileceği düşüncesiyle köy kethüdâsının oğlu da devşirilmezdi. Aynı şekilde sığırtmaç ve çoban çocukları ile kel, fodul, köse ve doğuştan sünnetlilerle şehir çocukları toplanmazdı. Evlenmiş ve sanat sahibi olmuş çocuklarla aşırı derecede uzun ve kısa boylular da devşirilmeyenler arasındaydı. Ancak uzun boylu çocuklardan endamı düzgün olanlar sadece saray için alınabilirdi. Fâtih Sultan Mehmed zamanında kendi istekleriyle topluca müslüman olan Bosna halkının çocukları ise babalarının ricası üzerine (Şem‘dânîzâde, I, 454), bu davranışlarının mükâfatı olarak sadece saray ve özellikle Bostancı Ocağı için devşirilirdi (BA, MD , nr. 5, s. 96). Nitekim Bosna-Hersek ve Kilis sancakları kadılarına 25 Ağustos 1573 tarihinde gönderilen bir fermanda, bu bölgelerden oğlan devşirmekle görevli Anadolu Ağası Ferhad’ın hem hıristiyan hem müslüman reâyâdan devşirme yapmasına engel olunması emredilmiştir (BA, MD , nr. 22, s. 299-310).
Devşirme kanunu bazı mükellefiyetler yüzünden her yerde uygulanmazdı. Başlangıçta daha ziyade Rumeli’de Üsküp, İştip, Köstendil, Prizren, Görice, Samakov, Prebol, Taşlıca, Ergirikasrı, Yanya, Pirlepe, İşkodra, Ohri, İpek, Dukakin, Novasin, Manastır, Mostar, İzvornik, Böğürdelen, Horpeşte gibi yerlerde tatbik edilmiştir. XV. yüzyılın sonlarından itibaren Erzurum, Harput, Diyarbekir, Bursa ve İstanbul civarı dışında Anadolu’da da uygulanmıştır. Devşirme yapılmayacak bölgeler halkının elinde devşirmeden muaf olduklarına dair hükümler bulunurdu (BA, MD , nr. 3, s. 71, 141). Genellikle derbendcilerden, maden işçilerinden, mîrî inşaat işçilerinden devşirme yapılmazdı. Devşirme için Arnavut, Boşnak, Rum, Bulgar, Sırp ve Hırvat çocukları tercih edilir, Türk, Kürt, Acem, Rus, yahudi, Gürcü ve Çingene çocukları devşirilmezdi. Ermeniler’den ise sadece saray için çok az devşirme yapılmıştır.
Devşirme memuru gittiği yerlerde dellâllar vasıtasıyla devşirme için geldiğini ilân ettirir, sekiz-yirmi, özellikle de on dört-on sekiz yaşları arasındaki hıristiyan çocuklarının kaza merkezinde toplanmasını sağlardı. Hıristiyan çocukları, vaftiz defterleri yanlarında olduğu halde babaları ve papazlarıyla birlikte toplantı yerine gelirlerdi. Vaftiz defterlerini inceleyen devşirme memuru çocukları bizzat görerek kanuna ve tâlimata uyanları ayırırdı. Genellikle her kazada kırk hâneden bir oğlanın alınması âdet idiyse de bu sayı daha ziyade ihtiyaca göre belirlenirdi. Devşirilen çocukların köyü, kazası, babasının, annesinin ve bağlı olduğu sipahinin veya ait olduğu vakıf veya çiftlik sahibinin adı, doğum tarihi, göz rengine varıncaya kadar bütün eşkâli ve kendisini devlet merkezine götürecek memurun adı iki ayrı deftere yazılırdı. “Eşkâl defteri” denilen bu defterlerden birini devşirme memuru, diğerini ise devşirilen çocukları merkeze sevkeden ve kendisine “sürücü” denilen memur saklar, sürücü götürdüğü efradı bu defterle birlikte teslim ederdi. Devşirilen çocuklara giydirilen kızıl aba ile kırmızı külâhın bedeli, “hil‘at-bahâ” veya “kul akçesi” adıyla devşirme yapılan bölge reâyâsından alınırdı. Başlangıçta çocuk başına 90-100 akçe olan bu miktar daha sonra 300, hatta 600 akçeye kadar yükselmiştir. Devşirme işiyle görevli kişilerin belirli ücretleri de yine ilgili bölge halkından tahsil edilirdi.
Devşirilen çocuklar, “sürü” denilen 100-200 kişilik kafileler halinde sürücülerin idaresinde devlet merkezine gönderilirdi. Yolda kaçmamaları ve özellikle müslüman Bosnalı sünnetlilerin arasına yabancıların karışmaması için sıkı tedbirler alınırdı (BA, MD , nr. 22, s. 304). Devşirme sürüsünün içine karışmış yabancıya “saplama” denilirdi. Sürü içine yabancı birinin karıştığı tesbit edilirse sürücüler şiddetle cezalandırılırdı. Nitekim Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman zamanında yeniçeri ağalarından Pertev Mehmed Paşa şüphelendiği bir sürünün tamamını tophâneye vermiş, hiçbir neferi acemiliğe almamış, görevinde ihmali görülen devşirme memuru da kale dizdarlığı ile cezalandırılmıştır.
İstanbul’a götürülen devşirme oğlanları, Ağakapısı’nda yeniçeri ağası tarafından kontrol edilir ve eşkâl defterine yazılırdı. Ardından sünnet edilen çocuklara müslüman-Türk adları verilirdi. Devşirilen gençlerin üzerindeki cizye vergisi düşerdi. Sürüden saray için ayrılacak olanları ya yeniçeri ağası arzeder veya saray ağası seçerdi. Bunlar önce Edirne, Galata veya İbrâhim Paşa saraylarında eğitilir, aralarından kabiliyetli olanlar Topkapı Sarayı’na alınır, diğerleri ise kapıkulu süvari bölüklerine verilirdi. Gürbüzce olanlar Bostancı Ocağı için ayrılırdı.
Ağakapısı’nda yoklaması biten devşirme sürüsü, Anadolu ve Rumeli ağaları tarafından küçük bir ücret karşılığında geçici bir süre için Anadolu ve Rumeli’deki Türk köylülerinin yanına verilirdi (Neşrî, I, 199). Rumeli’den devşirilenler Anadolu’ya, Anadolu’dan devşirilenler Rumeli’ye gönderilir, böylece yaşı büyük olanların kaçması önlenmiş olurdu. Firar edenler ise hemen yakalanıp yerlerine gönderilirdi. Anadolu’daki devşirmelerden Anadolu ağası, Rumeli’dekilerden ise Rumeli ağası sorumluydu. Kethüdâlar zaman zaman Türk köylüsünün yanında bulunan çocukları teftiş ederlerdi. “Türk’e verme” (Türk üzerine verme) denilen bu uygulama ile devşirme oğlanları bir yandan ziraatla uğraşarak üretime katkıda bulunur, bir yandan da Türkçe’yi, Türk-İslâm âdet ve geleneklerini öğrenirlerdi. Zamanı gelince de yeniçeri ağasının arzı ve Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’da alınan kararla İstanbul’a getirilirlerdi. Burada eşkâl defterine bakılarak kontrolden geçirilen devşirme oğlanları daha sonra Acemi Ocağı’na kaydedilirdi. Bu kayıttan sonra “acemi oğlanı” adını alan devşirmelere önce 1, daha sonra da 2’şer akçe yevmiye verilirdi. Ancak XVII. yüzyılda Türk’e verme usulünden vazgeçildiği anlaşılmaktadır (Evliya Çelebi, I, 598).
Devşirme kanununun ihlâli Yeniçeri Ocağı’nın bozulmasına sebep olmuştur. XVI. yüzyıl sonlarından itibaren yeniçeri oğullarının “kuloğlu” adıyla kabul edilmesi, dışarıdan da “kul kardeşi” ve “ağa çırağı” adları altında kanuna aykırı olarak Yeniçeri Ocağı’na alımlar yapılması, devşirme işlerinin gevşemesine yol açmıştır (Kitâb-ı Müstetâb, s. 7-8). Yine bu dönemde devşirme işine rüşvet karışmıştır (Selânikî, II, 482). XVII. yüzyılda, özellikle IV. Murad zamanında devşirme işi ıslah edilmeye çalışılmışsa da bu yüzyıl ortalarından itibaren artık devşirme pek yapılmamıştır. XVIII. yüzyıl başlarında ise sadece saray için 1000 kadar oğlanın devşirildiği görülmektedir. Ahmed Cevad Paşa son devşirmenin 1751 yılında yapıldığını belirtmektedir (Târîh-i Askerî-i Osmânî, I, 180).
XV. yüzyılın ilk yarısından XVII. yüzyıl sonlarına kadar yaklaşık iki buçuk asır kadar süren devşirme işlemi kanuna uygun olarak yapıldığında iyi sonuçlar vermiştir. Nitekim 1584-1587 yılları arasında İstanbul’da bulunan Venedik elçisi Lorenzo Bernardo, “Sadece devlet idaresinin değil koca imparatorluğun ordularına kumanda yetkisinin de ellerine verildiği kişiler ne dük ne marki ne de konttur. Hepsi çobanlıktan gelme sıradan insanlardır. Bu sebeple biz Venedikliler’in de padişahın yaptığını yapmamızda isabet vardır. Padişah bu adamlardan en iyi kaptanları, sancak beylerini, beylerbeyileri yetiştirerek onlara şan ve itibar kazandırmıştır” (Lybyer, s. 47) diyerek devşirme sisteminin başarılı bir uygulama olduğunu ifade etmiştir. Gerçekten küçük yaşlarda toplanıp sıkı bir eğitimden geçirilen devşirme oğlanları, kabiliyet ve biraz da talihlerine göre en yüksek mevkilere kadar çıkabiliyorlardı. Fâtih Sultan Mehmed tarafından Türk asıllı Çandarlı ailesine vurulan darbeden sonra birkaç istisna dışında hemen bütün vezîriâzamlar devşirmelerden tayin edilmiştir. Bunların arasından Mahmud, Gedik Ahmed, Makbul İbrâhim, Sokullu Mehmed, Ferhad, Lala Mehmed, Kara Murad, Kemankeş Mustafa paşalar ve Köprülü ailesinden değerli sadrazamlar çıkmıştır.
Devşirme sisteminin İslâm hukukuna uygun olup olmadığı meselesine gelince, bu husus daha ziyade Batılı araştırmacılar tarafından tartışılmıştır. Bazı şarkiyatçılar, zimmî çocuklarının zorla alınmasının onların hukukuna tecavüz olduğunu ve İslâm hukukuna aykırı bulunduğunu ileri sürerken (Ménage, BSOAS , XXIX, 64 vd.) bazıları bu uygulamayı daha önceki İslâm devletlerinde görülen gulâm sisteminin devamı kabul etmişlerdir (Vryonis, Isl. , XLI, 224 vd.). Wittek ise devşirmelerin daha ziyade Slav, Boşnak ve Bulgarlar’dan toplandığını belirterek bunların İslâmiyet’in ortaya çıkışından (VII. yüzyıldan) sonra Hıristiyanlığı kabul eden kavimler olduğunu, Şâfiî mezhebine göre zimmî sayılamayacaklarını, dolayısıyla zimmîler gibi kendi dinlerini koruyarak İslâm ülkesinde yaşama hakları bulunmadığından ailelerinden alınıp devşirme olarak yetiştirilmelerinin en azından Şâfiî mezhebi açısından İslâm hukukuna aykırı olmadığını ileri sürmektedir (BSOAS , XVII, 271 vd.).
Wittek tarafından savunulan bu görüşün Osmanlılar’ca dikkate alındığını söylemek güçtür. Zira Osmanlılar sadece Slav, Boşnak ve Bulgarlar’dan değil İslâm’ın zuhurundan önce hıristiyan olan, dolayısıyla Şâfiî’ye göre de Ehl-i kitap sayılan Rum ve Ermeniler’den de devşirme yapmışlardır. Devşirme uygulamasını köle sistemiyle bağdaştırmak da zordur. Çünkü devşirmeler, hür olduklarında tereddüt bulunmayan gayri müslim tebaanın çocuklarıdır. Bunlara “kul” veya “gılman” denilmesini, padişahın hassa askeri olmalarıyla izah etmek gerekir. Hatta bazı eserlerde Osmanlı tebaası olan herkes “padişahın mutî kulu” olarak nitelendirilmektedir (Koçi Bey, s. 74). Devşirme uygulamasında hukuk bakımından üzerinde durulacak iki mesele vardır. Devşirmelerin rızâları dışında ailelerinden alınmaları ve müslümanlaştırılmaları. İslâm devletiyle gayri müslim tebaa arasında yapılan zimmet akdiyle devlet gayri müslimlerin can ve mal güvenliğini garanti altına almakta, zimmîler de bunun karşılığında İslâm devletinin genel düzenine uymayı ve cizye ödemeyi kabul etmektedirler. Cizyenin kadın, çocuk, ihtiyar, hasta, rahip gibi kimselerin dışındaki şahıslardan, yani bilfiil muharip olabilecek kimselerden alındığına bakılırsa bir anlamda harbe iştirak etmeme karşılığında tahsil edildiği söylenebilir. Ancak devletin ihtiyaç duyduğu zamanlarda zimmîlerden cizye almaktan vazgeçip onların fiilen asker olarak hizmet etmelerini istemesini de meşrû kabul etmek gerekir. Bu konuda İslâm devletinin ihtiyaca göre bir takdir hakkının bulunduğu söylenebilir. Aksi bir çözüm, yani zimmîlerin rızâları dışında askere alınmasını reddetme, hâkim durumda olan devletin zimmîler karşısında âciz kalması sonucunu doğuracaktır. Buna göre Osmanlı Devleti’ndeki devşirme uygulamasını zimmîlerden istenen mecburi askerlik hizmeti olarak yorumlamak mümkündür. Devşirme olarak fiilen hizmet edenlerden cizye alınmaması da bu yorumu güçlendirmektedir. İmam Mâlik ve Ahmed b. Hanbel’e göre askerlik hizmeti müslümanlara has ise de Ebû Hanîfe ve Şâfiî’ye göre İslâm ordusunda gayri müslimler de istihdam edilebilir. Hz. Peygamber devrinde ve daha sonraki dönemlerde benzer uygulamalara rastlamak mümkündür.
İdrîs-i Bitlisî bu noktada daha farklı bir yorum yapmaktadır. Ona göre Osmanlı toprakları savaşla (anveten) alınmış olduğundan sakinleri köle sayılır. Dolayısıyla devşirme usulüyle bunlardan faydalanılması mümkündür. Ancak bu görüşün tutarlı olduğunu söylemek güçtür. Zira Osmanlılar’ın savaş yoluyla aldıkları topraklardaki insanları köle saydıklarına dair hiçbir delil yoktur. Aksine bu insanların hür zimmîler olarak kabul edildiğini gösteren birçok delil vardır. Kendilerinden cizye alınması ve hukukî tasarruflarında serbest bırakılmaları bunların başında gelir. İdrîs-i Bitlisî’den bu konuda alıntılar yapan Hoca Sâdeddin Efendi, herhalde gayri müslimlerin köle oldukları yorumuna katılmadığı için bu kısmı eserine almamıştır (Tâcü’t-tevârîh, I, 40-41; ayrıca bk. Ménage, BSOAS , XVIII, 181-183).
Devşirmelerin ailelerinden alındıktan sonra müslümanlaştırılıp sünnet edilmelerine gelince, Osmanlı hukukçuları bu uygulamayı Hz. Peygamber’in, “Her doğan çocuk fıtrat üzerine doğar; daha sonra anne ve babası onu yahudileştirir, Nasrânîleştirir ve Mecûsîleştirir” (Buhârî, “Ḳader”, 3, “Cenâʾiz”, 80; Müslim, “Ḳader”, 23, 24, 25; Müsned , II, 315, 346) meâlindeki hadise dayandırmaktadırlar. İslâm âlimleri burada “fıtrat”ı “hak din” olarak anlamakta ve kelimenin Kur’an’da da (bk. er-Rûm 30/30) bu anlamda geçtiğini söylemektedirler. Devşirmelerin genellikle sekiz-on sekiz yaşları arasında toplandığı dikkate alınırsa burada hıristiyanların zorla din değiştirmeleri değil, henüz bir dinle yükümlü olmamış (Ebû Hanîfe’ye göre erkeklerin bulûğunda üst sınır on sekiz yaştır) kimselerin anne ve babaları tarafından hıristiyanlaştırılmadan önce hak dini benimsemelerini sağlama gayretinin söz konusu olduğu anlaşılır. Devşirme kurumunun Osmanlı Devleti için sağladığı faydalar, Osmanlı ulemâsınca Wittek’in de ifade ettiği gibi (BSOAS , XVII, 275) zaruret ve örf kavramı içerisinde değerlendirilmiş ve özellikle müslümanlaştırma konusunda yerleşmiş olan İslâmî anlayışın zorlanmasına itiraz edilmemiştir.
Yine bazı müsteşriklerin devşirme sistemini doğrudan doğruya İslâmlaştırma ve Türkleştirme olarak değerlendirmeleri de (Gibbons, s. 97 vd.) tutarsız görünmektedir. Zira bu sistem öncelikle askere olan ihtiyaçtan doğmuştur. Eğer amaç Türkleştirme olsaydı daha kuruluş yıllarında bu yola başvurulurdu. Ayrıca Osmanlılar doğrudan bir İslâmlaştırma politikası takip etselerdi sınırları içindeki toplulukların hemen tamamının müslüman olması gerekirdi. Aksine Osmanlılar Ortodoksluğu ihya etmekle kendi tebaasının din ve vicdan hürriyetine saygı göstermiş, gayri müslim halka zimmî muamelesi yapmıştır. Türkleştirme ve İslâmlaştırma iddiasını mesnetsiz bırakan bir başka delil de devşirme kanununun XV. yüzyıl ortaları gibi oldukça geç bir dönemde tamamen zaruretlerden kaynaklanmış olmasıdır. Düzenli olarak XVI. yüzyılın son çeyreğine kadar (yaklaşık 150 yıl) uygulanan sistem zamanla gevşemiş, Kapıkulu ocaklarının nefer ihtiyacı daha ziyade kuloğlu ve ağa çırağı denilen kimselerden karşılanmıştır. Osmanlı Devleti’nin ömrüyle kıyaslandığında 150 yıl gibi fazla uzun olmayan süre içinde ise devşirme her yıl değil birkaç yılda bir veya askere ihtiyaç duyuldukça yapılmıştır. Devşirmelerin eğitildiği acemi ocaklarının mevcudunun hiçbir devirde 10.000 kişiyi geçmediği göz önüne alınırsa İslâmlaştırma politikasının ne derece geri planda kaldığı daha iyi anlaşılır. Osmanlılar’ın fethettikleri yerleri Türkleştirmek ve İslâmlaştırmak için iskân ve sürgün gibi daha değişik yöntemler uyguladıkları bilinmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1994 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 9. cildinde, 254-257 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.