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DİRHEM Skip to content Bir ağırlık ölçüsü ve gümüş para birimi.
Eski Yunan devletiyle ticarî münasebetler sırasında drahmi kelimesinden Farsça’ya, daha sonra oradan Arapça’ya geçmiştir. Gerek ağırlık gerekse para birimi olarak dirhemin kullanılışı çok eskidir.
Ağırlık Birimi Olarak Dirhem. Metrik sisteme geçilmeden önce insanlar çeşitli ölçü birimleri için yabani hardal tanesi, arpa veya buğday tanesi ve keçi boynuzu çekirdeği gibi tarım ürünleriyle insan vücudunun bazı organlardan (zirâ, kadem, kulaç…) faydalanmışlardır. Dirhem ve miskalin ilk çağlardaki tanımı Bâbil’in, iki avuç dolusunu ifade eden ölçü birimi mene (manah) kadar götürülebilir. Bu ölçü 505 gr. olup altmışta birine şekel deniyordu. Lidya, Atina, Kıbrıs ve Kapudağı’nın (Cyzique) ilk altın paraları bu ağırlıkta (8,44 gr.) basıldı. Gümüş para darbedildiğinde bir birim altına karşılık 13 1/3 birim gümüş veriliyordu. Bu gümüş şekel İran’da stater ve Yunan’da tetradrachm (4 drahmi) sayılıyordu. Attik, Korent ve Eğriboz’da stater 8,72 gramdı. Bunun üçte biri kadar olan drahmi 2,91 gr. ile İslâm şer‘î dirheminin ağırlığına çok yakındı. Şekel veya stater, Yunan ile ticaret kolaylığı sağlaması için İranlılar tarafından kullanıldı, onlardan da Araplar’a geçti ve İslâm devletinin gümüş para birimi oldu. Dirhemin İslâm toplumlarında kullanıldığı bölge ve zamana göre ölçüsü değişmiştir. Geleneksel İslâm kaynakları şer‘î dirhemi 14 kırat olarak nakleder. Dirhemin çeşitleri 20, 10 ve 12 kırat veya 8 ve 4 dânek takdir edilirken bunların ortalaması olan 14 kırat veya 6 dânek zekât nisabının hesabı için esas alınmıştır. Arap yarımadasında tedavülün tartı esasına dayandığı anlaşılmaktadır. Miskal 20 ve dirhem 14 kırat kabul edilince aralarında daima 7/10 oranı mevcut olur. 7 miskal 140 ve 10 dirhem de yine 140 kırattır. Dirhemin üst katları olarak nevât (çekirdek) 5 dirhem (14,85 gr.), neş veya nısf ukıyye (kıyye) 20 dirhem (59,4 gr.), ukıyye 40 dirhem (118,8 gr.), 12 ukıyye bir rıtl 480 dirhemdir (1425,6 gr.).
Sûrî dinar üzerinden yaptığı hesaplardan, Haçlı seferleri sırasında yani XII veya XIII. yüzyılda yaşadığı anlaşılan Cemâleddin Ebü’l-Abbas b. Sebât dirhemi 6 dânek, 12 kırat, 24 tassûc, 48 habbe ve 60 aşîr 96 fels olarak kaydetmektedir.
Bu tartı birimleri şer‘î değil örfî idi. Gāzân Han’ın “tevhîd-i evzân” politikası çerçevesinde yaymak istediği Tebriz miskali de örfî ağırlık birimiydi ve 2 dirhem sayılıyordu. Fakat bunun Osmanlılar’da 1,5 dirhem olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Aslında Trabzon miskali olan bu tartı birimi İstanbul’da da kullanılırdı. Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman 1 Cemâziyelevvel 928 (29 Mart 1522) tarihinde bunun Mısır’da da kullanılmasını mecburi tutmuştur. Esnafın muhalefetine rağmen Rûmî dirhem adıyla kullanılan bu ağırlık birimi 1100 (1688-89) yılı civarında artık Mısrî dirhem olmuştur. O sıralarda hükümet, İstanbul’da darbedilen şerîfî altınlarla Kahire’de bastırılanların aynı ağırlıkta olması üzerinde ısrar ediyordu. Bunun için Mısır’da 3,072 gramlık 115 Mısrî dirhemden (352,28 gr.) 100 şerîfî darbedilebilecekti. İstanbul’da o tarihte bu miktar şerîfî, Rûmî dirhemle 110 dirheme tekabül ediyordu. Ancak Mısır bu dirhemi sonradan terketmiş olmalıdır. Zira 1845 yılında Mehmed Ali Paşa tarafından görevlendirilen bir Mısır komisyonu, “dirhemü’l-keyl” karşılığı olarak 3,0898 gr. değer koymuştur. Ayrıca 1953’te kuyumcuların kullandığı birer dirhemlik bronz tartı 3,1322 ve 3,1335 gr. gelmiştir.
Para Birimi Olarak Dirhem. Kendilerine mahsus paraları olmayan Hicaz Arapları, Bizans’ın altın dinarı ile İran’ın ve Yemen’in gümüş dirhemlerini kullanırlardı. Araplar’a İran’dan geçen dirhem kelimesinin çoğulu olan derâhim Kur’an’da geçmektedir (Yûsuf 12/20). Makrîzî’de “es-Sevdâü’l-vâfiye” ve “et-Taberiyyetü’l-utuk” şeklinde geçen dirhemin iki çeşidinin olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Makrîzî bunlardan, “tartıda ağır çeken” anlamındaki vâfî dirhemlerin İran’ın Bağlî dirhemleri olduğunu belirtmektedir. Bunlardan başka Cûrâkî dirhemin de adı geçmektedir. İbn Haldûn ayrıca Mağribî ve Yemenî (Mâverdî’nin sözünü ettiği Himyerî olmalı) adlı dirhemlerden de söz etmektedir. Bağlî kelimesi Bâbil’de Ba‘l veya Hille yakınlarında Bağliy denilen beldelerden birine nisbet edildiği gibi Re’sü’l-Bağl adlı bir darphâneciye de izâfe edilmektedir. Bu zatın kişiliği hakkında farklı rivayetler vardır.
Irak ve İran’ın fethine kadar Araplar Sâsânî dirhemlerini üzerlerinde hiçbir değişiklik yapmadan kullandılar. İran’ın fethi arefesinde III. Yezdicerd’in (632-651) sikkeleri kullanılıyordu. İslâmî devirde İran dirhemi ilk defa Hz. Ömer zamanında basıldı (Makrîzî, s. 4). Bunun ağırlığı 2,97 gramdı. Halife Abdülmelik b. Mervân bu miktarı gümüş sikke birimi itibar etmiştir. Sâsânî dirhemlerinin ön yüzünde hükümdarların resmi, arka yüzünde iki muhafız arasında ateş tapınağı bulunurdu. Bu sikkelerin üzerinde Pehlevîce darp yerinin simgesi veya tam adı, darp tarihi olarak da krallarının cülûsunun kaçıncı yılında darbedildiği yazılırdı. Sâsânî dirheminin oluşturduğu diskin alanı genişçe olup sikke ortada kalmaktaydı. Çevredeki boşluk dört ayyıldız ile dört eşit bölüme ayrılmıştı. Hilâlin uçları diskin çemberine dönük olurdu.
İslâm devletinde darbedilen Sâsânî dirhemleri üzerinde zamanla İslâmî unsurlar artmıştır. Ayyıldızlar arasındaki boşluklara “bismillâh, bismillâhi rabbi, ceyyid” gibi İslâmî ibareler ve kelime-i şehâdet yazılmıştır. Asıl sikkeyi oluşturan iç kısımda tarih hicrî takvime göre gösterilmiş, fakat darp yeri bir süre Pehlevîce olma özelliğini korumuştur. Valiler de bazan Pehlevîce, bazan Arapça olarak isimlerini sikkeye kazdırmışlardır. Dinarda olduğu gibi dirhemde de İslâmî olmayan şeyler zamanla kaldırılmıştır. Ateş tapınağı yerine ortasında mızrak bulunan bir mihrap kazınmış, mihrabın dışında solda “emîrü’l-mü’minîn”, sağda ise “y” harfi eksik olarak “halifetullah”, mihrabın içinde mızrağın solunda “nasr” ve sağında “Allah” yazılıdır. Bir sonraki merhalede kisrâ resmi yerine kılıç kuşanmış halife resmi konulmuştur. Sonuçta dirhem Arapça kûfî yazılı, resimsiz olmuş, şekil ve ağırlık bakımından Sâsânî sikkelerinden tamamen ayrılmıştır. Sâsânî Hükümdarı II. Hüsrev’in dirhemlerinin ağırlığı 4,11-4,15 gr. arasında değişmiştir. Araplar’ın bastırdığı Sâsânî dirhemleri ise daha hafif olup 3,95 gramdır. Taberistan’da darbedilenlerin ağırlığı 1,80-1,95 gr. arasında değiştiğine göre bunlar yarım dirhem olmalıdır. Diğer darphânelerde basılı dirhemlerin ağırlığı ise çok değişik olup Sâsânî-Arap dirhemlerinin ağırlığında istikrar sağlanamamıştır. Sikke ıslahından önce valiler gibi halifelerden de dirhemler üzerine adlarını yazdıranlar oldu. Bunlardan Muâviye zamanında (661-680) basılan dirhemlerin üzerinde Pehlevîce “mahaviya emîr-i vurvişnikan” (emîrü’l-mü’minîn) ifadesi bulunmaktadır. Daha sonra halifelik iddiasında bulunan Abdullah b. Zübeyr ve Hâricî Katarî b. Fücâe ile son olarak Abdülmelik b. Mervân da “emîr-i vurvişnikan”lı dirhemler darbettirmişlerdir.
Abdülmelik b. Mervân, 74-76 (693-695) yılları arasında İslâmî ibarelerle dirhem bastıran ilk halifedir. Nümismatların buldukları en eski halis İslâm dirheminin 78’de (697-98) Ermîniye’de darbedildiği görülmektedir (Uş, s. 277). Ayrıca 40 (660) tarihli bir dirhem bulunmuşsa da bu tarihin yanlış yazılmış olabileceği öne sürülmektedir.
İslâmî dirhemin teorik ağırlığı 2,97 gramdır (14 kırat). Ancak bunun biraz daha hafif ve ağırları da vardır. IX. yüzyılın üçüncü çeyreğine kadar bu ağırlıktan fazla uzaklaşılmamıştır. Bununla birlikte Vâsiḳ-Billâh’ın hilâfetinden (842-847) itibaren tedavülde 3 gramdan daha ağır, hatta az da olsa 4-6 gr. arasında dirhemler darbedilmiştir (Artuk, I, sikke nr. 490, 494, 510). Dirhemin katları olabilecek ağırlıkta olmayan bu sikkelerin tedavüle sürülen yeni paralar olduğu düşünülebilir. Dirhemin ön yüzünde üç satır halinde “Lâ ilâhe illallāhü vahdehû lâ şerîke leh”, bunun çevresinde çember şeklinde “bismillâh, duribe hâze’d-dirhem bi… fî seneti…” şeklinde darp yeriyle hicrî takvime göre ve yazıyla darp tarihi bulunurdu. Arka yüzünde dört satır halinde, “Allāhü ahad Allāhü’s-samed lem yelid ve lem yûled ve lem yekün lehû küfüven ahad”, çerçevesinde ise “Muhammedün resûlullah” ibaresiyle Tevbe sûresinin 33. âyeti yer almaktadır. Bununla birlikte Taberistan’da ve Rey’de Pehlevî yazılı dirhemlerin darbına 168 (784) yılına kadar devam edilmiştir.
Emevî halifeleri ve Me’mûn’a kadar Abbâsî halifeleri altın sikkelere isimlerini ve darphâne adlarını koymamakla birlikte pek azı müstesna gümüş dirhemlere koymuşlardır. Hicrî 79’dan (698) Emevî Devleti’nin yıkıldığı 132 (750) yılına kadar Emevî halifelerinin yetmiş bir yerde darphâne tesis ettikleri nümismatik verilerle sabittir. Bunlardan bazısı, özellikle Dımaşk, Vâsıt ve nisbeten İfrîkıye darphâneleri sürekli çalışmış, diğerlerinin çoğu 100 (718) yılından önce kapanmıştır. Aslında Suriye’nin doğusunda ve Mısır’ın batısında kalan bölgelerde genellikle gümüş para tedavül ediyordu. Dirhem bazı kritik dönemler geçirmekle birlikte dinar gibi milletlerarası para olarak şöhret yapmıştır. İpek karşılığı Çin’e, kürk, Slav köle, bal mumu ve deri karşılığı Rusya’ya akmıştır. Rusya Avrupası’nda nehirler boyunda, göller bölgesiyle yakınındaki Fin körfezinde, Stockholm yakınlarında, Baltık’ta Visbi adasında, Danimarka, Fransa ve İngiltere’nin kuzeyindeki definelerde İslâm dirhemleri bulunmaktadır. Bunların çoğu Mâverâünnehir’den Sâmânî, Gazneli, Karahanlı dirhemleridir. İçlerinde Sâsânî, Arap-Sâsânî dirhemleri de vardır. Ekserisi XII. yüzyıl başlarına kadar basılmış olanlardır. Daha sonraki döneme ait dirhemin bulunmaması Rusya’ya bu akışın durduğunu göstermektedir. Bunu, Rus Prensi Sviatoslav’ın Hazarlar üzerine yaptığı akınla yorumlamak isteyenler olduğu gibi İslâm dünyasındaki gümüş sıkıntısına bağlayanlar da vardır. Bu darlık X-XII. yüzyıllarda devam etmiş, Mağrib’de de etkili olmuştur. Bu asırlar İslâm siyasî bütünlüğünün bozulmaya başladığı dönemlerdir. Böyle politik ve ekonomik istikrarsız zamanlarda para darbına gerek kalmıyordu. Küçük alışverişlerde kullanılan dirhem, tedavülünün azalması veya zamanla ortadan kalkması ile yerini başka para birimlerine bırakmıştır. Eyyûbîler ve Memlükler döneminde gümüş sıkıntısının görüldüğü XIII. yüzyıl sonları ile XIV ve XV. yüzyıllarda bakır para (fülûs) veya muhtevasının üçte ikisi bakır olan “kara dirhem, dirhem nukre” gibi sikkeler kesilmiştir. Zengîler ve Artuklular ise resimli bakır paralar (derâhim fülûs) bastırmışlardır.
İslâm dirhemleri Avrupa’ya doğudan genellikle İspanya üzerinden gidiyordu. İspanya’ya silâh, kereste, köle ticareti karşılığı giren İslâmî dirhemler Avrupa’da “menkūş” adıyla duyulmaya başladığı sıralarda Charlemagne da parasını dirheme bağlama politikası gütmüştü. Charlemagne, bir Roma libresinden 240 adet darbedilen 1,36 gramlık “denier”nin ağırlığını 2,04 grama, 327,45 gramlık libreyi de 490 grama çıkarmıştır. 20 dirhem ödenen dinara 30 denier rayiç takdir etmiştir. Böylece 779 yılına doğru İslâm dünyasında dinar için 59,4 gr., Avrupa’da ise 30 denier karşılığı 61,2 gr. gümüş takdir edildiği anlaşılmaktadır. Dinar başına aradaki 2 gramlık farkın Avrupa’ya altın çekmeye yeterli olup olmadığı tartışılabilir. Avrupa’da altın-gümüş mübadele haddi bire 12,15, hatta bire 17’ye düşerken İslâm âleminde dinarın rayici IX. yüzyılda 15, İspanya’da X. yüzyılda 17 dirhem olmuştur. Altın celbedebilmek için XI. yüzyıla kadar dinarın rayici 30 denier olarak muhafaza edilmiştir. Akdeniz yoluyla Avrupa’ya aktarılan altın, XIII. yüzyılda Avrupa’ya yeniden altın darbı imkânını verip bimetalizme dönüşünü sağlarken altın para rejimi içindeki Kuzey Afrika, Mısır ve Suriye’de gümüş dirhemin tedavülü yeniden artmıştır. Haçlılar da Avrupa’dan gelen gümüşlerle İslâm dirhemlerinin taklitlerini basmışlardır. Onların “sarraçenata” dedikleri altın para birimi Fâtımî altınlarının, dirhemleri de Eyyûbî dirhemlerinin taklidi idi. Bunların üzerindeki İslâmî ibareler başlangıçta aynen korunmuş, fakat zamanla yerlerini yine Arapça olarak Hıristiyanlık’la ilgili ibareler almıştır. Bir ara Bizans İmparatorluğu da Arap dirhemlerinin etkisinde kalmış, VIII ve IX. yüzyıllarda imparatorlar “miliaresia” adında gümüş paralar darbettirmişlerdir. Kuzey Afrika’da basılan Muvahhidî dirhemlerin, özellikle güney Fransa’da ve İtalya’da “millarrès” adıyla taklitleri basılarak Mağrib pazarlarını doldurmuştur.
Gümüşün Çin’e ve Hindistan’a kaçışını durdurmak için zaman zaman yasaklar konmuştur. Bu geleneğe Osmanlılar tarafından da uyulmuş, Osmanlı padişahları İran’a ve Basra körfezinden Hindistan’a gümüşün kaçışını önlemeye çalışmışlardır. Memlükler Mısır’dan, gümüşten başka bakırın ve bakır paraların da Hicaz ve Hindistan’a akmasına karşı tedbirler almışlar, fakat pek başarılı olamamışlardır.
Büveyhîler’in 1010’dan sonra Bağdat’ta ve başka bir yerde gümüş para darbetmedikleri iddiası hükümetlerinin son elli yılına rastlarsa da 1013’te Şîraz’da darbedilen Büveyhî dirhemleri günümüze ulaşmıştır (Artuk, I, sikke nr. 1039).
Selçuklular’ın da dirhemleri azdır. Selçuklu sultanlarının kesintili dirhem darbettikleri ileri sürülmektedir. Anadolu Selçukluları zamanında gümüş dirhem ve bakır paralar kesilmiştir.
Moğollar batıya doğru yayılırken Çin’den büyük miktarlarda gümüşü serbest bırakmışlardır. İlhanlılar’ın klasik İslâm dirhemine bağlı kalmadıkları anlaşılmaktadır. Bunların, her biri 6 dirhem ağırlığında gümüş dinar, dînâr-ı râbih veya râic ya da Tebriz dinarı adı verilen gümüş sikkeleri vardır. “Tenke” veya “tenkçe” denilen diğer gümüş sikkeleri miskalin üçte biri ağırlığındaydı. Bunların 108 adedi, adına “sum” denilen 36 miskal ağırlığında bir gümüş çubuk ediyordu (Togan, s. 6). Tenkenin kullanımı Timurlular zamanında da devam etmiştir.
Kuzey Afrika’da gümüş dirhemlerin tarihi değişik bir gelişme göstermiştir. Emevîler’den sonra İdrîsîler’in ve Ağlebîler’in de şer‘î dirheme bağlı kaldıkları görülmektedir. Şekil bakımından orijinalite peşinde olan bu devletlerin dirhemleri üzerindeki yazılar doğu kûfî hattından farklı olduğu gibi Muvahhidler ve Hafsîler’in dirhemleri kare veya dikdörtgen şeklindeydi. Ağlebîler’den II. İbrâhim (875-902) bunu yasaklayıp 10 adedi 1 altın değerinde olan “işârî dirhem”i darbettirmiştir. Tunus’ta Hafsîler’in darbettikleri kare dirhemler şer‘î dirhemin yarısı ağırlığındaydı. Ancak Hafsî hükümdarları sikkelerin sarraf vb. eliyle tağşîş edilmesine engel olamamışlardır. Bu münasebetle Müstansır-Billâh 1262’de dirhemi tedavülden kaldırmış, “handûs” adıyla bakır para çıkarmış, fakat çok geçmeden bu kara dirhemi de tedavülden çekmiştir. Bir başka Hafsî hükümdarı olan Sultan Osman (1435-1488) Nâsırî dirhemin tedavülünü yasaklayarak yeni bir dirhemi tedavüle çıkarmıştır. Bunun birçok küsuratı vardı.
Murâbıtlar, Muvahhidler ve Fâtımîler devrinde altın monometalizmi vardı. Selâhaddîn-i Eyyûbî Mısır’ı Fâtımîler’den aldıktan sonra el-Melikü’n-Nâsır unvanıyla Nâsırî dirhemler kestirmişti. Bu hükümdar dönemi dirhemlerindeki gümüş miktarının eksik olduğu, bu münasebetle el-Melikü’l-Kâmil’in sikke ıslahı girişiminde bulunarak 1225 yılında Nâsırî dirhemleri yasakladığı ve üçte ikisi gümüş olan Kâmilî dirhemi tedavüle çıkardığı anlaşılmaktadır. Ancak yapılan son modern analizlerde her iki hükümdarın dirhemlerinde % 28-29 oranında gümüş bulunduğu ortaya çıkmıştır.
Mısır’da Bahrî Memlükler devrinde (1250-1389) dirhemin ayarı yüzde 45-69 arasında değişmiştir. Makrîzî, Baybars’ın dirhemlerinin üçte ikisinin gümüş olduğunu ve üzerinde arslan resminin bulunduğunu belirtmektedir. Burcî Memlükler zamanında (1382-1517) genellikle dirhemlerin üçte ikisi bakırdı. Bunlara “nukre dirhem” denirdi. Sultan el-Melikü’l-Müeyyed Şeyh el-Mahmûdî (1412-1421), bakır paraları tedavülden kaldırıp saf gümüşten dirhem ve yarım dirhem ağırlığında sikkeler çıkarmış, bunlardan yarımlıklar çok rağbet görmüştür. Bu para şer‘î dirhem esası üzerinde yapılan son denemedir. Mısırlılar buna “nısf fıdda” adını vermişlerdir. Batılılar bu parayı “el-Müeyyed”den bozma “Medin, Medini” şeklinde anmışlardır. Osmanlılar tarafından Suriye ve Mısır’ın ilhakından önce Halep darbı bazı gümüş paraların Bursa’ya kadar ulaştığı ve Halebî akçe adıyla anıldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Halep’e bağlı sancakların tahrir defterlerinin baş kısmındaki kanunnâmelerde de aynı şekilde Halebî akçe tabirine rastlanmaktadır. Bir Halebî akçesine bir buçuk Osmanlı akçesi değeri takdir edilirdi. Memlük Sultanlığı’nda tedavül eden sikkelere, özellikle yarım dirhemlik bu gümüş para birimine akçeden ayırmak için evvelâ “kıt‘a”, daha sonra ise bunun Farsça’sı olan “pâre” adı verilmiştir. Para birimi olarak dirhem ve dinar adında sikke darbetmeyen Osmanlılar, gerektiğinde ve özellikle şer‘î hüccetlerde ve bunların Arapça yazılması halinde gümüş ve altın para anlamında dirhem ile dinarı kullanırlardı. Ancak bu durumda “günün geçerli parasıyla” ifadesi de eklenirdi.
Dirhem günümüzde Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri ve Fas’ın para birimi, Libya dinarının binde biri, Suudi Arabistan riyalinin yüzde biri ve Küveyt dinarının onda biri olarak varlığını sürdürmektedir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Kudâme b. Ca‘fer, el-Ḫarâc , Köprülü Ktp., nr. 1076, 8. bâb, vr. 19a , ayrıca bk. tür.yer.
Mâverdî, el-Aḥkâmü’s-sulṭâniyye , Kahire 1298, s. 146.
Makrîzî, en-Nuḳūdü’l-İslâmiyye , İstanbul 1298, tür.yer.
en-Nuḳūdü’l-ʿArabiyye ve’l-İslâmiyye ve ʿilmü’n-nümmiyyât (nşr. Anistâs el-Kermelî), Port Said 1987, tür.yer.
Selânikî, Târih (İpşirli) , II, 585, 588, 706, 785, 786, 826.
Ahmed b. Sebât el-Hümâmî, Ġunyetü’l-ḥüssâb fî ʿilmi’l-ḥisâb , Süleymaniye Ktp., Ayasofya, nr. 2728, vr. 26a vd.
F. B. Pegolotti, La Pratica della Mercatura (nşr. Allan Evans), Cambridge 1936, tür.yer.
Abdürrezzâk-ı Şems-i İşrâk, Noḫustîn Sikkehâ-i İmparatorî-i İslâm , İsfahan 1379 hş., tür.yer.
Nuri Pere, Osmanlılarda Mâdenî Paralar , İstanbul 1968, s. 12-13 ve tür.yer.
Artuk, İslâmî Sikkeler Kataloğu , III, tür.yer.
M. Lombard, Monnaie et histoire d’Alexandre a Mahomet , Paris 1971, I, tür.yer.
Muhammed Ebü’l-Ferec el-Uş, “en-Nuḳūdü’l-ʿArabiyyetü’l-İslâmiyye maṣdar ves̱âʾiḳī li’t-târîḫ ve’l-fen”, el-Müʾtemerü’d-devlî li-bilâdi’ş-Şâm , Amman 1974, s. 267-301.
Tadeusz Lewlki, “Le commerce des Samanides avec l’Europe oriental et centrale à la lumière des trèsors de monnaies coufiques”, Studies in Honour of G. C. Miles , Beirut 1974, s. 219-234.
Claude Cahen, “Monetary Circulation in Egypt at the Time of the Crusades and Reform of al-Kamil, The Islamic Middle East 700-1900”, Studies in Economic and Social History , Princeton 1981, s. 315-333.
Jere L. Bacharach, “Monetary Mouvements in the Medieval Egypt”, Precious Metals in the Later Medieval and Early Modern World (ed. J. F. Richards), Durham 1983.
a.mlf. – Andon A. Cordus, “Studies on the Finness on Silver Coins”, JESHO , XI/3 (1968), s. 298-317.
Abdülhay el-Kettânî, et-Terâtîbü’l-idâriyye (Özel) , II, 173-185.
W. Hinz, İslâmda Ölçü Sistemleri (trc. Acar Sevim), İstanbul 1990, s. 1 vd.
J. A. Decourdemanche, “Étude métrologique et numismatique sur les misqals et les dirhems arabes”, Revue numismatique , sèrie 4, XII, Paris 1908, s. 208-240.
Zeki Velidi Togan, “Moğollar Devrinde Anadolu’nun İktisadi Vaziyeti”, THİTM , I (1931), s. 1-42.
Andrew M. Watson, “Back to Gold and Silver”, The Economic History Rewiew , 2em series, XX/14, Hardforshire 1967, s. 1-34.
Philip Grierson, “The Monetary Reforms of Abd al-Malik, Their Mitrological Basics and Their Financial Repercussions”, JESHO , XIII/3 (1970), s. 241-264.
E. V. Zambaur, “Dirhem”, İA , III, 94-95.
Pakalın , I, 453-454.
G. C. Miles, “Dirham”, EI2 (Fr.) , II, 328-329.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1994 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 9. cildinde, 368-371 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.