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DÎVÂN-ı HÜMÂYUN Skip to content Osmanlı devlet yönetiminde XV. yüzyıl ortasından XVII. yüzyılın ilk yarısına kadar en önemli karar organı.
“Padişah divanı” anlamına gelmektedir. Divan kelimesi Türkçe’ye Farsça ve Arapça yoluyla geçmiştir. Kelimenin menşe itibariyle Ârâmîce’den geldiği ve Farsça’ya da bu dilden geçip yerleştiği kabul edilir. İslâm medeniyetinin ilk devirlerinde Arapça’ya da geçen ve bütün İslâm devletlerinin siyasî diline giren kelimenin bu sebeple Arapça olduğu sanılmıştır.
Divan eski İran’da malî kayıtların yazıldığı defterlere ve bu defterleri tutan resmî dairelere verilen isimdi. İslâm’ın ilk devirlerinde de kelime bu şekilde anlaşılmıştı. Daha sonraları divan başka kelimelerle birlikte “Dîvânü’l-berîd”, “Dîvânü’l-cünd”, “Dîvânü’l-hâtem” gibi çeşitli devlet dairelerinin adı oldu. Bugünkü modern Arapça’da da divan ilk planda “hükümet dairesi, yönetim bürosu, memurluk yeri ve sekreterlik” anlamlarına gelmektedir. Divanın Farsça’da ilk, Arapça’da ikinci anlamı “kurul” veya “toplantı”dır. Osmanlılar’da ise divan Farsça anlamından da ileri derecede “toplantı, kurul, kurul-organ” karşılığında kullanıldı. Ayrıca hem toplantının kendisi, hem toplantının yapıldığı yer de bu kelime ile karşılanıyordu. Bugünkü Türkçe’de de divanın ilk anlamı budur. Bununla birlikte divan bazan Dîvân-ı Ahkâm-ı Adliyye, Dîvân-ı Deâvî Nezâreti’nde olduğu gibi devlet dairesi anlamında da kullanılıyordu. Divanın ayrıca “bir şairin şiir külliyatı”, “oturulan yer, kanepe” gibi başka anlamları da vardır.
Sıkı bir merkeziyetçilikle yönetilen Osmanlı Devleti’nde Dîvân-ı Hümâyun merkezdeki en önemli işleri gören makam sahiplerinden oluşur ve padişah adına karar verirdi. Bundan dolayı Yeniçağ başlarındaki pek çok gelişmiş devlette görülen bu tür kurul-organların en güzellerinden biridir.
Osmanlı Devleti’nde birer karar organı olarak çalışan çeşitli divanlar vardı. Bunların en önemlisi, padişahın bulunduğu yerde onun adına toplanan Dîvân-ı Hümâyun idi. Hiçbir İslâm devletinde bunun ayarında bir kurul-organ yoktu. Bunun sebebi, Türkler’in daha İslâmiyet’i kabul etmeden önce devlet işlerini görüştükleri kurullara sahip olmalarıydı. Moğolca’daki karşılığı olan kurultay kelimesiyle ifade edilen bu toplantılarda zaman zaman belli devlet işleri görüşülürdü. Bu sağlam gelenek Türk-İslâm devletlerinde de devam etti. Özellikle Abbâsîler’deki Dîvânü’s-sır, Dîvânü’d-dâri’l-kebîr gibi saray divanlarını, Dîvân-ı Mezâlim gibi her türlü şikâyete açık divanları gören Türkler, bunları eski gelenekleriyle birleştirerek yepyeni bir divan kavramı oluşturdular. Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’a benzeyen ilk gelişmiş İslâm-Türk divanını Büyük Selçuklular kurmuşlardı. Dîvân-ı A‘lâ adlı bu divanla Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’a geçiş süreci başladı. Bu gelenek Anadolu Selçukluları’nda da devam etti. Daha sonra bu devletin parçalanmasıyla oluşan beyliklerde de divan geleneği sürdü. Aynı türden sade ve basit bir divan Osmanlı beyliğinde de vardı. Beylik giderek tam ve düzenli bir devlet halini aldıkça divan kavramında da gelişmeler oldu. Ancak XV. yüzyıl ortalarına kadar Osmanlı devlet kurumlarının doğup gelişmeleri hakkında sağlıklı kaynaklar bulunmadığından bu kavramdaki gelişmeleri takip etmek güçtür. Bilinen husus, özellikle II. Murad döneminde divanın Dîvân-ı Hümâyun vasfını kazanmaya başlamasıdır. Edirne’de kurulan bu divana bazan padişah başkanlık eder ve belirli teşkilât kuralları uygulanırdı.
Dîvân-ı Hümâyun tam gelişmiş şeklini Fâtih Sultan Mehmed zamanında almaya başladı. Fâtih’e atfedilen ünlü kanunnâme bir çeşit anayasa düzeni kurmuş, devletin belli başlı makamlarını, bu arada Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’u da düzenlemişti. Fâtih’in getirdiği en büyük yenilik ise divanda padişahın başkanlığının kesinlikle kaldırılması ve bu işin vezîriâzama bırakılmasıdır.
XVI. yüzyıl başlarından itibaren Dîvân-ı Hümâyun devlet içinde padişahtan sonra en önemli yeri aldı, bu durum XVII. yüzyıl sonlarına kadar sürdü. O dönemlerden başlayarak Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’un yetkileri yavaş yavaş vezîriâzamın divanına (ikindi divanı ) geçmeye başladı. Dîvân-ı Hümâyun arada bir canlanmasına rağmen XVIII. yüzyıl ortalarında Bâb-ı Âsafî, yani vezîriâzam dairesinin her bakımdan gelişmesi sebebiyle bir merasim ve gösteriş yeri durumuna düşmeye başladı. II. Mahmud’un merkez teşkilâtındaki büyük reformu, hem bir sembol durumuna düşmüş Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’un hem de vezîriâzam divanının sonu oldu ve kabine sistemine geçildi. Ancak Dîvân-ı Hümâyun bir gösteriş ve teşrifat aracı olarak hiçbir hukukî ve siyasî fonksiyonu bulunmadan devletin sonuna kadar korundu.
Fonksiyonunu kaybetmediği devirlerde Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’un aslî üyeleri vezîriâzam, sayıları genellikle üçle yedi arasında değişen Kubbealtı vezirleri, Rumeli ve Anadolu kazaskerleri, nişancı, Rumeli ve Anadolu defterdarlarından teşekkül ediyordu. Ayrıca İstanbul’da bulunduğu sırada Rumeli beylerbeyi de divan üyeleri arasında yer alırdı. Vezirlik rütbesine yükseldikten sonra yeniçeri ağası ile kaptan-ı deryâ da aslî üye olurlardı. Üye olmamakla birlikte toplantıları yönlendiren önemli yardımcı ise reisülküttâbdı. Ayrıca tezkireciler, çavuşbaşı ve daha alt düzeyde görevliler de vardı. Üye veya yardımcı olmamakla birlikte hükümet merkezinde bir iş için bulunan vezir rütbesindeki yöneticilerle mâzul beylerbeyileri de toplantılara katılmak zorunda idiler. Sadece divan üyesi olarak çalışan, belli görevleri olmayıp gerektiği vakit bazı işlerle uğraşan Kubbealtı vezirleriyle özellikle örfî hukuku çok iyi bilen nişancı bu yapıyı tamamlamaktaydı. Merkez teşkilâtının en önemli birimlerinin âmirleri üye oldukları halde belli bir idarî veya adlî görevi bulunmayan şeyhülislâm Dîvân-ı Hümâyun üyesi değildi. Bu şekilde oluşan güçlü kurul-organın kararlarını yazmak, göndermek, saklamak gibi önemli işleri gören ayrı bir bürokratik teşkilât mevcuttu. Dîvân-ı Hümâyun kalemleri denilen bu birimler beylik, tahvil ve ruûs kalemlerinden ibaretti ve şeflerine reîsülküttâb deniyordu.
Dîvân-ı Hümâyun çok sıkı teşrifat kurallarına uyularak toplanır, toplantılar padişahın bulunduğu yerde yapılırdı. Hükümdarlar genellikle İstanbul’da oturduklarından Topkapı Sarayı’nın ikinci avlusunda bulunan ve Harem Dairesi’ne bitişik olan ünlü Kubbealtı klasikleşmiş toplantı yeriydi. Ancak Edirne’de veya başka bir yerde bulunan padişah dilediği zaman divanın toplanmasını emredebilirdi. Bazı padişahların uzun süre oturdukları Edirne Sarayı’nda da bir kubbealtı vardı.
Dîvân-ı Hümâyun XVI. yüzyılda haftada bazan dört, bazan beş gün toplanırdı. XVII. yüzyıl başlarında toplantı sayısı haftada ikiye inmiş, XVIII. yüzyıl başından sonra ise iyice azalmıştı. Toplantı sabah namazından sonra başlardı. Aslî üyeler büyük bir titizlikle belli yerlerine otururlar, yardımcılar ise oturmaz, ayakta hizmet ederlerdi. Toplantı normal şartlarda öğle ezanına kadar sürerdi.
Toplantı gündemini reîsülküttâb hazırlar, ilk önce siyasî ve idarî konular görüşülürdü. Bir yüksek mahkeme şeklinde çalışan divanda padişahın onayına sunulması gerekmeyen işler hakkında hemen karar verilir ve hazırlanan karar müsveddeleri temize çekilmek üzere nişancıya teslim edilirdi. Nişancı da padişah tuğrası çekili fermanı hazırlar veya hazırlatırdı. Böylece idarî, siyasî veya adlî bir konuda padişah adına karar verilmiş olurdu. Ancak divan üyeleri bazı konuları padişaha arzetmeden kesinleştirmezlerdi. Bu işleme “arza çıkmak” denirdi. Toplantı bitince üyeler sıra ile padişah huzuruna çıkıp görüşülen işler hakkında bilgi verirlerdi. Padişah bu görüşleri onaylarsa kararlar kesinleşmiş sayılırdı.
Devletin bütün büyük makam sahiplerinin katıldığı, padişah adına karar veren Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’un, gelişmiş döneminde vezîriâzamın da üstünde bulunduğu söylenebilir. Zira vezîriâzam tek başına padişahı temsil ederse de divanda bir kurul içinde diğer yetkililerle birlikte çalıştığından ve kararlar ilgili kişilerin katılmasıyla verildiğinden Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’un padişahtan sonra en yetkili makam olduğu kabul edilmelidir. Öte yandan vezîriâzamın şer‘î konularda dava görmesi mümkün değildi. Halbuki Dîvân-ı Hümâyun kazaskerler dolayısıyla bu konuda da yetkiliydi.
Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’un idarî ve siyasî yetkileri yanında Batılı gözlemcilerde hayranlık uyandıran tarafı adlî işlerde kendini göstermektedir. Buraya sosyal mevki, yaş, din, dil, cinsiyet farkı kesinlikle gözetilmeksizin herkes yazı ile veya bizzat başvurabilirdi. Üyeler bütün şikâyetleri dinlemek zorundaydılar. İslâm hukukunda temyiz kavramı olmadığı, kadının verdiği hüküm kesin sayıldığı halde burada kadıların hükümleri de incelenir, haksız görülenler bozulur ve yeniden hüküm vermesi için kadıya gönderilirdi. Şeriat dışı örfî konularda ise nişancı ile vezîriâzam ve diğer vezirler karar verirlerdi.
Divan toplantıları padişahın sarayında yapılırdı. Padişah toplantı salonuna açılan kafesli bir pencere ardından istediği zaman görüşmeleri dinleyebilirdi. Bu da üyelerin son derece adaletli, temkinli karar vermelerini sağlardı. Çünkü en küçük bir haksızlığın cezasının siyaseten katle kadar gidebileceği bilinmekteydi. Bu sebeple Dîvân-ı Hümâyun herkesin rahatlıkla başvurduğu örnek bir kurul-organdır. Padişahın vekili olan vezîriâzamlar hareket serbestliklerini sınırlayan bu kuruma sempati göstermemişlerdir. Bundan dolayı çok daha rahat ve tam hâkim bir şekilde çalıştıkları kendi ikindi divanlarının yetkilerinin arttırılmasına çalışmışlar ve bunu da bilhassa XVIII. yüzyılda tamamıyla başarmışlardır.
XVI-XVII. yüzyıllar arasında ne Batı’da ne de Doğu’da emsaline rastlanan bu büyük kurul-organın gelişemeyip yozlaşmasının en önemli sebebi, burada basit de olsa bir “temsil” niteliğinin bulunmamasıdır. Padişahın mutlak otoritesine bağlı olarak çalışan üyelerden başka belli sosyal kesimlerin temsilcilerinin divana alınması düşünülemezdi. Halbuki Batı’da çok daha ilkel bazı kurullara çeşitli ekonomik ve sosyal etkilerle bürokrasi dışı temsilciler de girince bu organlar gelişti. Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’da ise böyle bir özellik yoktu. Kurumlaşmamış, belli kurallara bağlanmamış ve ancak zaman zaman toplanan “meşveretler” de bu eksikliği giderememiştir.
Osmanlı Devleti’nde Dîvân-ı Hümâyun’dan başka divanlar da vardı. Vezîriâzam divanı yanında cuma günleri yine onun konağında toplanan ve şer‘î davalarla uğraşan, bundan dolayı sadece kazaskerlerin katıldığı cuma divanı, yine buna benzer nitelikte çarşamba divanı en önemli diğer kurul-organlardandır. Her makam sahibi de ayrıca kendi dairesinde divan kurardı. Eyaletlerde de valinin başkanlığında toplanan, merkezdeki ikindi divanının küçük bir kopyası olan eyalet divanları çalışırdı.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Neşrî, Cihannümâ , III, 550, 552.
Hezârfen, “Telhîsü’l-beyân fî Kavânîni Âli Osmân” (nşr. R. Anhegger), TM , X (1953), s. 371-372.
Tevkiî Abdurrahman Paşa, Kānûnnâme (MTM , I/3 [1331] içinde), s. 497-544.
Uzunçarşılı, Medhal , s. 5, 12, 87, 89, 121.
a.mlf., Merkez-Bahriye , s. 1-110.
Halil inalcık, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age , London 1973, s. 89.
Josef Matuz, Das Kanzleiwesen Sultan Süleymans des Prächtigen , Wiesbaden 1974, s. 710.
Aydın Taneri, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Kuruluş Döneminde Vezîr-i A’zamlık , Ankara 1974, s. 42 vd.
Ahmet Mumcu, Hukuksal ve Siyasal Karar Organı Olarak Divan-ı Hümayun , Ankara 1986.
Tevfik Temelkuran, “Divân-ı Humâyun Mühimme Kalemi”, TED , sy. 6 (1975), s. 129-175.
Abdülkadir Özcan, “Fâtih’in Teşkilât Kanunnâmesi ve Nizam-ı Âlem İçin Kardeş Katli Meselesi”, TD , sy. 33 (1982), s. 756.
B. Lewis, “Dīwān-ı Humāyūn”, EI2 (İng.) , II, 337-339.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1994 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 9. cildinde, 430-432 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.