Does Globalization Reduce Youth Unemployment? Augmented ARDL Approach

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 38 Sayı: 3, 177 – 183, 15.07.2024

Süleyman Uğurlu

https://doi.org/10.16951/trendbusecon.1480078

Öz

İşsizlik konusu ekonomi yazınında yıllardır tartışılan önemli bir konu olmakla birlikte, hükümetlerin ve firmaların dikkate aldığı temel göstergelerden biridir. Nitekim bir ülkede işsizliğin azaltılması ekonomik refahın artırılmasının yanı sıra, sosyal refahın da artırılmasına katkı sağlamaktadır. Küreselleşme sürecinde işsizlik rakamlarında meydana gelen dalgalanmalar, araştırmacıları bu konu üzerine odaklanmalarını sağlamıştır. Nitekim bu çalışma Türkiye özelinde küreselleşmenin genç işsizlik üzerindeki etkisini 1988-2021 dönemi için genişletilmiş ARDL yaklaşımı yardımıyla tespit etmeye çalışmaktadır. Küreselleşmeyi temsilen literatürde sıklıkla kullanılan KOF Küreselleşme Endeksi seçilmiştir. Çalışmanın kısıtları KOF endeksine ait güncel verinin 2021 yılına ait olması ve genç işsizlik verilenin ise 1988 yılından başlamasıdır. Küreselleşme ile genç işsizlik arasındaki ilişkinin Türkiye özelinde kısıtlı sayıda incelenmiş olması, bu çalışmanın hareket noktasını oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmanın bulgularına göre Türkiye’de uzun dönemde küreselleşmedeki artış genç işsizliği azaltmaktadır. Ayrıca ekonomik büyüme, enflasyon ve doğrudan yabancı yatırımların artması yine genç işsizliği azaltırken, kentleşmenin artması ise genç işsizliği artırmaktadır. Buna ek olarak kısa dönemde ise dengeden bir sapma olması durumunda, bu sapmaların yaklaşık %85’i bir dönem içerisinde telafi edilmekte ve uzun vadede tekrar dengeye ulaşılmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Küreselleşme, Genç İşsizlik, Genişletilmiş ARDL

Kaynakça

• Abdul-Mumuni, A., Amakye, K., Abukari, A. L., & Insaidoo, M. (2023). Modeling trade openness–unemployment nexus in sub-Saharan Africa: the role of asymmetries. African Journal of Economic and Management Studies, 14(4), 792–805. [CrossRef].
• Alfalih, A. A. (2024). The impact of oil prices, foreign direct investment and trade openness on unemployment rates in an oil-exporting country: The case of Saudi Arabia. Heliyon, 10(3), 1–15. [CrossRef].
• Amoa-Gyarteng, K., & Dhliwayo, S. (2024). Globalization, entrepreneurial development and unemployment: a mediation analysis in the context of South Africa. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 31(2), 272–297. [CrossRef].
• Awad, A. (2019). Economic globalization and youth unemployment–evidence from African countries. International Economic Journal, 33(2), 252–269. [CrossRef].
• Awad, A., & Youssof, I. (2016). The impact of economic globalization on unemployment: The Malaysian experience. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 25(7), 938–958. [CrossRef].
• Balkı, A. (2023). Kurumlar vergisinin işsizlik oranına etkisi: Genişletilmiş ardl yönteminden kanıtlar. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, (12), 31–41. [CrossRef].
• Bitzenis, A. (2012). Globalization and foreign direct investment. In A. Bitzenis, V. Vlachos, & P. Papadimitriou (Eds.), Mergers and acquisitions as the pillar of foreign direct investment (pp. 9–24). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Braunstein, E., & Epstein, G. (2004). Bargaining power and foreign direct investment in China: Can 1.3 billion consumers tame the multinationals? In W. Milberg (Ed.), Labor and the Globalization of Production: Causes and Consequences of Industrial Upgrading (pp. 209–248). London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.
• Chang, S. C. (2007). The interactions among foreign direct investment, economic growth, degree of openness and unemployment in Taiwan. Applied Economics, 39(13), 1647–1661. [CrossRef]
• Malik, S., Chaudhury, I. S., & Javed, I. (2011). Globalization and employment: Evidence from Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 31(2), 215–226.
• Cheema, A. R., & Atta, A. (2014). Economic determinants of unemployment in Pakistan: Cointegration analysis. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 5(3), 209–221. [CrossRef].
• Daly, V., Ullah, F., Rauf, A., & Khan, G. Y. (2017). Globalization and unemployment in Pakistan. Kingston University Discussion Paper 2017-2. 1–16. [CrossRef].
• Das, R. C., & Ray, K. (2020). Does globalization influence employment? Empirical investigation on individual as well as panel of South Asian countries. Review of Market Integration, 12(1-2), 7–34. [CrossRef].
• Debrah, Y. A., & Smith, I. G. (2003). Globalization, employment and the workplace: Diverse impacts? In Y. A. Debrah & I. G. Smith (Eds.), Globalization, employment and the workplace (pp. 1–23). Routledge.
• Dickey, D. A., & Fuller, W. A. (1981). Likelihood ratio statistics for autoregressive time series with a unit root. Econometrica, 49, 1057–1072.
• Didin, Sönmez, F., & Özerkek, Y. (2018). Türkiye’de Bölgesel Genç İşsizliğin Belirleyicileri. Marmara Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 40(2), 297–318. [CrossRef].
• Dinga, G. D., Thierry, M. A., Fonchamnyo, D. C., Emmanuel, O. N. B., & Nginyu, G. G. (2023). ICTs and globalization in the African labour market. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 1–20. [CrossRef].
• Dreher, A. (2006). Does globalization affect growth? Evidence from a new index of globalization. Applied Economics, 38(10), 1091–1110. [CrossRef].
• Dreher, A., Gaston, N., & Martens, P. (2008). Measuring Globalization – Gauging Its Consequences. New York: Springer.
• Dutt, P., Mitra, D., & Ranjan, P. (2009). International trade and unemployment: Theory and cross-national evidence. Journal of International Economics, 78(1), 32–44. [CrossRef].
• Elijah, O. A. (2007). Effects of economic globalization on employment trend and wages in developing countries: Lessons from Nigeria experiences. 22. National Conference of Labour Economics, September 13–14, AIEL, Napoli, Italy. [CrossRef].
• Felbermayr, G., Prat, J., & Schmerer, H., (2011). Globalization and labor market outcomes: wage bargaining, search frictions, and firm heterogeneity. Journal of Economic Theory, 146(2011), 39–73. [CrossRef].
• Gozgor, G. (2017). The impact of globalization on the structural unemployment: An empirical reappraisal. International Economic Journal, 31(4), 471–489. [CrossRef].
• Gozgor, G., Bilgin, M. H., & Zimmermann, K. F. (2019). Public employment decline in developing countries in the 21st century: The role of globalization. Economics Letters, 184, 108608. [CrossRef].
• Griffith, D. A., Kiessling, T. S., & Dabic, M. (2005). An exploratory examination into the challenges to technology transfer in the transitional economy of Croatia. Thunderbird International Business Review, 47(2), 163–181. [CrossRef]
• Gujarati, D. (1999). Temel Ekonometri. (Ü. Şenesen, & G. G. Şenesen, Trans.) İstanbul: Literatür Publishing.
• Gygli, S., Haelg, F., Potrafke, N., & Sturm, J. E. (2019). The KOF Globalization Index–Revisited. The Review of International Organizations, 14, 543–574. [CrossRef].
• Haile, G. A., Srour, I., & Vivarelli, M. (2013). The impact of globalization and technology transfer on manufacturing employment and skills in Ethiopia. IZA Discussion Paper, No. 7820. [CrossRef]
• Hasan, R., Mitra, D., Ranjan, P., & Ahsan, R. N. (2012). Trade liberalization and unemployment: Theory and evidence from India. Journal of Development Economics, 97(2), 269–280. [CrossRef]
• Heintz, J. (2009). Revisiting labour markets: Implications for macroeconomics and social protection. IDS Bulletin, 39(2), 11–17.  [CrossRef].
• Hjazeen, H., Seraj, M., & Ozdeser, H. (2021). The nexus between the economic growth and unemployment in Jordan. Future Business Journal, 7(1), 1–8. [CrossRef]
• Holton, R. J. (2011). Globalization and The Nation State, Second Edition, London: Macmillan Press.
• Hookman, B., & Winters, L. A. (2005). Trade and employment: Stylized facts and research findings. Policy Research Working Paper Series, 3676. 1–36. [CrossRef].
• Hovhannisyan, N. (2012). Technology gap and international knowledge transfer: New evidence from the operations of multinational corporations. Eastern Economic Journal, 45(4), 612–638. [CrossRef]
• ILO, (2022). Global employment trends for youth 2022: Investing in transforming futures for young people. [CrossRef]
• Jenkins, R. (2006). Globalization, FDI and employment in Vietnam. Transnational Corporations, 15(1), 115–142.
• Jude, C., & Silaghi, M. I. P. (2016). Employment effects of foreign direct investment: New evidence from central and eastern European countries. International Economics, 145, 32–49. [CrossRef].
• Kabeer, N., & Mahmud, S. (2004). Globalization, gender and poverty: Bangladeshi women workers in export and local markets. Journal of International Development, 16, 93–109. [CrossRef].
• Khor, M. (2000). Globalization and the South: Some critical issues. (147). Penang: Third World Network.
• Kpognon, K., Ondoa, H. A., & Bah, M. (2020). Trade openness and youth employment in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Economic Integration, 35(4), 751–777. [CrossRef].
• Kwiatkowski, D., Phillips, P. C., Schmidt, P., & Shin, Y. (1992). Testing the null hypothesis of stationarity against the alternative of a unit root: How sure are we that economic time series have a unit root?. Journal of Econometrics, 54(1-3), 159–178. [CrossRef].
• Majumder, R. (2020). Globalization, technology and employment: looking back. MPRA Paper No. 110077. 1-30. [CrossRef].
• McNown, R., Sam, C. Y., & Goh, S. K. (2018). Bootstrapping the autoregressive distributed lag test for cointegration. Applied Economics, 50(13), 1509–1521. [CrossRef]
• Mike, F. (2020). The dynamic effect of globalization on unemployment rates in developing countries. In A. Khoich, A. E. Alper & A. A Eren (Eds.), Perspectives on modern economy (pp. 81–97). No: 2020/11. London: IJOPEC Publications.
• Mills, M., & Blossfeld, H. P. (2006). Globalization, uncertainty and the early life course: A theoretical framework 1. In H. P. Blossfeld, E. Klijzing & M. Mills (Eds.), Globalization, uncertainty and youth in society (pp. 1–23). Routledge.
• Mishra, R., & Palit, S. (2020). Role of FDI on employment scenario in India. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, 8(6), 1481–1489. [CrossRef]
• Musti, B. M. (2018). Impact of globalization on employment in Nigeria. International Economic Journal, 32(1), 43–52. [CrossRef].
• Narayan, P. K. (2005). The saving and investment nexus for China: Evidence from cointegration tests. Applied Economics, 37(17), 1979–1990. [CrossRef]
• Nguyen, Q. H. (2024). The influence of key economic globalization factors on economic growth and environmental quality: An empirical study in Southeast Asian countries. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 33(1), 57–75. [CrossRef]
• Nickell, S., Nunziata, L., & Ochel, W. (2005). Unemployment in the OECD since the 1960s. What do we know?. The Economic Journal, 115(500), 1–27. [CrossRef].
• Okafor, E. E. (2011). Youth unemployment and implications for stability of democracy in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 13(1), 358–373.
• Pata, U. K., & Caglar, A. E. (2021). Investigating the EKC hypothesis with renewable energy consumption, human capital, globalization and trade openness for China: Evidence from augmented ARDL approach with a structural break. Energy, 216, 1–16, 119220. [CrossRef].
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Does Globalization Reduce Youth Unemployment? Augmented ARDL Approach

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 38 Sayı: 3, 177 – 183, 15.07.2024

Süleyman Uğurlu

https://doi.org/10.16951/trendbusecon.1480078

Öz

While unemployment is a significant issue that has been extensively discussed in economic literature for decades, it is one of the key indicators that governments and firms consider. In fact, reducing unemployment in a country contributes to both increasing social welfare and economic welfare. Fluctuations in unemployment figures during the globalization process have led researchers to prioritize this issue. The objective of this study is to ascertain the impact of globalization on youth unemployment in Türkiye over the period 1988–2021, utilizing the augmented ARDL approach. The KOF Globalization Index, a frequently utilized indicator in the literature, is selected to represent globalization. However, the study is limited by the fact that the most recent data from the KOF index belongs to 2021, and the data on youth unemployment began in 1988. The limited number of studies on the relationship between globalization and youth unemployment in Türkiye constitutes the starting point of this study. The findings of the study indicate that an increase in globalization in the long run decreases youth unemployment in Türkiye. Furthermore, economic growth, inflation, and foreign direct investments also decrease youth unemployment, while an increase in urbanization increases youth unemployment. In addition, if a deviation occurs in the short run, approximately 85% of these deviations disappear in the first period and converge towards the long-run equilibrium.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Globalization, Youth Unemployment, Augmented ARDL

Kaynakça

• Abdul-Mumuni, A., Amakye, K., Abukari, A. L., & Insaidoo, M. (2023). Modeling trade openness–unemployment nexus in sub-Saharan Africa: the role of asymmetries. African Journal of Economic and Management Studies, 14(4), 792–805. [CrossRef].
• Alfalih, A. A. (2024). The impact of oil prices, foreign direct investment and trade openness on unemployment rates in an oil-exporting country: The case of Saudi Arabia. Heliyon, 10(3), 1–15. [CrossRef].
• Amoa-Gyarteng, K., & Dhliwayo, S. (2024). Globalization, entrepreneurial development and unemployment: a mediation analysis in the context of South Africa. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 31(2), 272–297. [CrossRef].
• Awad, A. (2019). Economic globalization and youth unemployment–evidence from African countries. International Economic Journal, 33(2), 252–269. [CrossRef].
• Awad, A., & Youssof, I. (2016). The impact of economic globalization on unemployment: The Malaysian experience. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 25(7), 938–958. [CrossRef].
• Balkı, A. (2023). Kurumlar vergisinin işsizlik oranına etkisi: Genişletilmiş ardl yönteminden kanıtlar. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, (12), 31–41. [CrossRef].
• Bitzenis, A. (2012). Globalization and foreign direct investment. In A. Bitzenis, V. Vlachos, & P. Papadimitriou (Eds.), Mergers and acquisitions as the pillar of foreign direct investment (pp. 9–24). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Braunstein, E., & Epstein, G. (2004). Bargaining power and foreign direct investment in China: Can 1.3 billion consumers tame the multinationals? In W. Milberg (Ed.), Labor and the Globalization of Production: Causes and Consequences of Industrial Upgrading (pp. 209–248). London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.
• Chang, S. C. (2007). The interactions among foreign direct investment, economic growth, degree of openness and unemployment in Taiwan. Applied Economics, 39(13), 1647–1661. [CrossRef]
• Malik, S., Chaudhury, I. S., & Javed, I. (2011). Globalization and employment: Evidence from Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, 31(2), 215–226.
• Cheema, A. R., & Atta, A. (2014). Economic determinants of unemployment in Pakistan: Cointegration analysis. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 5(3), 209–221. [CrossRef].
• Daly, V., Ullah, F., Rauf, A., & Khan, G. Y. (2017). Globalization and unemployment in Pakistan. Kingston University Discussion Paper 2017-2. 1–16. [CrossRef].
• Das, R. C., & Ray, K. (2020). Does globalization influence employment? Empirical investigation on individual as well as panel of South Asian countries. Review of Market Integration, 12(1-2), 7–34. [CrossRef].
• Debrah, Y. A., & Smith, I. G. (2003). Globalization, employment and the workplace: Diverse impacts? In Y. A. Debrah & I. G. Smith (Eds.), Globalization, employment and the workplace (pp. 1–23). Routledge.
• Dickey, D. A., & Fuller, W. A. (1981). Likelihood ratio statistics for autoregressive time series with a unit root. Econometrica, 49, 1057–1072.
• Didin, Sönmez, F., & Özerkek, Y. (2018). Türkiye’de Bölgesel Genç İşsizliğin Belirleyicileri. Marmara Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 40(2), 297–318. [CrossRef].
• Dinga, G. D., Thierry, M. A., Fonchamnyo, D. C., Emmanuel, O. N. B., & Nginyu, G. G. (2023). ICTs and globalization in the African labour market. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 1–20. [CrossRef].
• Dreher, A. (2006). Does globalization affect growth? Evidence from a new index of globalization. Applied Economics, 38(10), 1091–1110. [CrossRef].
• Dreher, A., Gaston, N., & Martens, P. (2008). Measuring Globalization – Gauging Its Consequences. New York: Springer.
• Dutt, P., Mitra, D., & Ranjan, P. (2009). International trade and unemployment: Theory and cross-national evidence. Journal of International Economics, 78(1), 32–44. [CrossRef].
• Elijah, O. A. (2007). Effects of economic globalization on employment trend and wages in developing countries: Lessons from Nigeria experiences. 22. National Conference of Labour Economics, September 13–14, AIEL, Napoli, Italy. [CrossRef].
• Felbermayr, G., Prat, J., & Schmerer, H., (2011). Globalization and labor market outcomes: wage bargaining, search frictions, and firm heterogeneity. Journal of Economic Theory, 146(2011), 39–73. [CrossRef].
• Gozgor, G. (2017). The impact of globalization on the structural unemployment: An empirical reappraisal. International Economic Journal, 31(4), 471–489. [CrossRef].
• Gozgor, G., Bilgin, M. H., & Zimmermann, K. F. (2019). Public employment decline in developing countries in the 21st century: The role of globalization. Economics Letters, 184, 108608. [CrossRef].
• Griffith, D. A., Kiessling, T. S., & Dabic, M. (2005). An exploratory examination into the challenges to technology transfer in the transitional economy of Croatia. Thunderbird International Business Review, 47(2), 163–181. [CrossRef]
• Gujarati, D. (1999). Temel Ekonometri. (Ü. Şenesen, & G. G. Şenesen, Trans.) İstanbul: Literatür Publishing.
• Gygli, S., Haelg, F., Potrafke, N., & Sturm, J. E. (2019). The KOF Globalization Index–Revisited. The Review of International Organizations, 14, 543–574. [CrossRef].
• Haile, G. A., Srour, I., & Vivarelli, M. (2013). The impact of globalization and technology transfer on manufacturing employment and skills in Ethiopia. IZA Discussion Paper, No. 7820. [CrossRef]
• Hasan, R., Mitra, D., Ranjan, P., & Ahsan, R. N. (2012). Trade liberalization and unemployment: Theory and evidence from India. Journal of Development Economics, 97(2), 269–280. [CrossRef]
• Heintz, J. (2009). Revisiting labour markets: Implications for macroeconomics and social protection. IDS Bulletin, 39(2), 11–17.  [CrossRef].
• Hjazeen, H., Seraj, M., & Ozdeser, H. (2021). The nexus between the economic growth and unemployment in Jordan. Future Business Journal, 7(1), 1–8. [CrossRef]
• Holton, R. J. (2011). Globalization and The Nation State, Second Edition, London: Macmillan Press.
• Hookman, B., & Winters, L. A. (2005). Trade and employment: Stylized facts and research findings. Policy Research Working Paper Series, 3676. 1–36. [CrossRef].
• Hovhannisyan, N. (2012). Technology gap and international knowledge transfer: New evidence from the operations of multinational corporations. Eastern Economic Journal, 45(4), 612–638. [CrossRef]
• ILO, (2022). Global employment trends for youth 2022: Investing in transforming futures for young people. [CrossRef]
• Jenkins, R. (2006). Globalization, FDI and employment in Vietnam. Transnational Corporations, 15(1), 115–142.
• Jude, C., & Silaghi, M. I. P. (2016). Employment effects of foreign direct investment: New evidence from central and eastern European countries. International Economics, 145, 32–49. [CrossRef].
• Kabeer, N., & Mahmud, S. (2004). Globalization, gender and poverty: Bangladeshi women workers in export and local markets. Journal of International Development, 16, 93–109. [CrossRef].
• Khor, M. (2000). Globalization and the South: Some critical issues. (147). Penang: Third World Network.
• Kpognon, K., Ondoa, H. A., & Bah, M. (2020). Trade openness and youth employment in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Economic Integration, 35(4), 751–777. [CrossRef].
• Kwiatkowski, D., Phillips, P. C., Schmidt, P., & Shin, Y. (1992). Testing the null hypothesis of stationarity against the alternative of a unit root: How sure are we that economic time series have a unit root?. Journal of Econometrics, 54(1-3), 159–178. [CrossRef].
• Majumder, R. (2020). Globalization, technology and employment: looking back. MPRA Paper No. 110077. 1-30. [CrossRef].
• McNown, R., Sam, C. Y., & Goh, S. K. (2018). Bootstrapping the autoregressive distributed lag test for cointegration. Applied Economics, 50(13), 1509–1521. [CrossRef]
• Mike, F. (2020). The dynamic effect of globalization on unemployment rates in developing countries. In A. Khoich, A. E. Alper & A. A Eren (Eds.), Perspectives on modern economy (pp. 81–97). No: 2020/11. London: IJOPEC Publications.
• Mills, M., & Blossfeld, H. P. (2006). Globalization, uncertainty and the early life course: A theoretical framework 1. In H. P. Blossfeld, E. Klijzing & M. Mills (Eds.), Globalization, uncertainty and youth in society (pp. 1–23). Routledge.
• Mishra, R., & Palit, S. (2020). Role of FDI on employment scenario in India. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, 8(6), 1481–1489. [CrossRef]
• Musti, B. M. (2018). Impact of globalization on employment in Nigeria. International Economic Journal, 32(1), 43–52. [CrossRef].
• Narayan, P. K. (2005). The saving and investment nexus for China: Evidence from cointegration tests. Applied Economics, 37(17), 1979–1990. [CrossRef]
• Nguyen, Q. H. (2024). The influence of key economic globalization factors on economic growth and environmental quality: An empirical study in Southeast Asian countries. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 33(1), 57–75. [CrossRef]
• Nickell, S., Nunziata, L., & Ochel, W. (2005). Unemployment in the OECD since the 1960s. What do we know?. The Economic Journal, 115(500), 1–27. [CrossRef].
• Okafor, E. E. (2011). Youth unemployment and implications for stability of democracy in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 13(1), 358–373.
• Pata, U. K., & Caglar, A. E. (2021). Investigating the EKC hypothesis with renewable energy consumption, human capital, globalization and trade openness for China: Evidence from augmented ARDL approach with a structural break. Energy, 216, 1–16, 119220. [CrossRef].
• Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3), 289–326. [CrossRef].
• Phillips, P. C., & Perron, P. (1988). Testing for a unit root in time series regression. Biometrica, 75, 335–346.
• Prasetyo, A. S., & Amar, Z. A. (2022). Relationship of trade openness, financial openness, and unemployment rate in ASEAN. Buletin Ekonomika Pembangunan, 3(2), 309–325. [CrossRef].
• Rakauskienė, O. G., & Ranceva, O. (2014). Youth unemployment and emigration trends. Intellectual Economics, 8(1), 165-177.
• Rama, M. (2003). Globalization and workers in developing countries. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, Paper No: WPS2958. 1–38. [CrossRef].
• Rodrik, D. (1997). Küreselleşme Sınırı Aştı mı?, Trans: İ. Akyol & F. Ünsal, İstanbul: Kızılelma Yayınevi.
• Saint‐Paul, G. (1998). A framework for analyzing the political support for active labor market policy. Journal of Public Economics, 67, 151–165. [CrossRef].
• Sam, C. Y., McNown, R., & Goh, S. K. (2019). An augmented autoregressive distributed lag bounds test for cointegration. Economic Modelling, 80, 130–141. [CrossRef].
• Sato, H., & Murayama, M. (2008). Introduction: Globalization and employment in South Asia. In H. Sato & M. Murayama (Eds.), Globalization, employment and mobility: The South Asian experience (pp. 1–28). London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.
• Siddiqa, A., Hussain, T., Qasim, M., & Javed, M. I. (2018). The impact of globalization on unemployment and economic growth: Panel data analysis for developing countries. Bulletin of Business and Economics (BBE), 7(3), 122–131.
• Sinha, M., Tirtosuharto, D., Ray Chaudhury, A., & Basu, P. (2023). FDI, digitalization and employment: Empirical evidence from developing economies. Studies in Economics and Finance, 40(4), 740–756. [CrossRef].
• Smith, P. J., & Smythe, E. (1999). Globalization, citizenship and technology: The MAI meets the internet. Canadian Foreign Policy Journal, 7(2), 83–105. [CrossRef]
• Subasat, T. (2003). What does the Heckscher-Ohlin model contribute to international trade theory? A critical assessment. Review of Radical Political Economics, 35(2), 148–165. [CrossRef].
• Turok, I. (1999). Urban labour markets: The causes and consequence of change. Urban Studies, 36, 893–915. [CrossRef].
• Vacaflores, D. E. (2011). Was Latin America correct in relying in foreign direct investment to improve. Applied Econometrics and International Development, 11(2), 101–122. [CrossRef].
• WDI, World Development Indicators, World Bank. [CrossRef].
• Witt, M. A. (2019). De-globalization: Theories, predictions, and opportunities for international business research. Journal of International Business Studies, 50(7), 1053–1077. [CrossRef]
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• Zhang, L. (2006). Globalization and its effects on youth employment in China. Beijing: Ministry of Labor and Social Security. [CrossRef]
• Zisi, A., & Merko, F. (2016). Problems of youth unemployment in Albania. In 13th International Conference of ASECU-Social and Economic Challenges in Europe, 2020, 346–351.

Toplam 72 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Kaynak Göster

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