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ECZACILIK Skip to content İlâç hazırlama sanatı.
Arapça’da eczacılık karşılığında saydele kelimesi kullanılmakta olup bu dile Sanskritçe’den geçmiştir. Fenn-i saydelânî ve fenn-i ispençiyârî de denilen eczacılık ilk dönemlerde hekimler tarafından yürütülüyor ve hekimler hastaları için öngördükleri ilâçları “kökçü, otçu” veya “attar” adı verilen esnaf grubundan sağladıkları ilâç ham maddeleriyle kendileri hazırlıyorlardı. Hekimlik ve eczacılık sanatlarının birbirinden ayrılması, ancak IX-XII. yüzyıllar arasında ve her ülkede değişik zamanlarda gerçekleşmiştir. İslâm dünyasında bu ayrılma Abbâsîler döneminde IX. yüzyılda başlamış ve bu dönemde hekimlerden ayrılan eczacılar attarlardan da ayrı kabul edilmiştir. Yine bu dönemde Halife Me’mûn (813-833), ilâçların devlet kontrolünde yapılması ilkesini getirerek tıbba ve eczacılığa önemli bir katkıda bulunmuştur.
Bir attar dükkânından pek farklı olmamakla birlikte ilk eczahanenin 148 (765) yılında Bağdat’ta faaliyete geçtiği sanılmaktadır. IX. yüzyıldan itibaren ise içinde ayrı bir ilâç yapım laboratuvarı bulunan eczahanelerin açıldığı, buralarda toz, şurup, macun, akrâs ve fitil gibi sayısı yetmiş dolayında olan ilâç çeşidinin üretildiği, ayrıca bunlardan ağız yoluyla kullanılanların kolaylıkla alınmasını sağlamak için tat ve koku veren maddelerle karıştırılarak hazırlandığı bilinmektedir. Kaynaklarda ilâçların basit (el-edviyetü’l-müfrede) ve birleşik (el-edviyetü’l-mürekkebe) olmak üzere iki ana bölüme ayrıldığı görülür. Basit ilâçlar, modern eczacılıkta “drog” denilen bir tek maddeden ibaret olup aynı zamanda birleşik ilâçların ham maddesini teşkil ederler. Önceleri yalnız bitkisel ve kimyasal kökenli olan basit ilâçlara sonradan hayvansal droglar da eklenmiştir. Birleşik ilâçlar ise yapısında birden fazla basit ilâç bulunan maddelerdir ve tedavi açısından birçok etkiye sahip oldukları için kullanım alanları çok daha geniştir.
İslâm eczacıları yeni ilâç şekillerini ve yeni drogları tedavi alanına soktukları gibi ilâç yapımında kullanılan alet ve teknikleri de geliştirmişlerdir. Örnek olarak Ebü’l-Kāsım ez-Zehrâvî’nin (ö. 400/1010 [?]) et-Taṣrîf adlı ansiklopedik eserinin (Millet Ktp., Ali Emîrî, nr. 2854) 28. risâlesinde resimleri bulunan ve haklarında bilgi verilen üç alet gösterilebilir. Bunlardan ikisi tenzu kursu (pastil) yapmakta kullanılan tahta kalıp (bk. AKRÂS ), diğeri ise suda kaynatılan veya su içinde uzun süre beklemeye bırakılan bitkisel maddelerin tortularını süzmeye yarayan üç katlı bir süzgeçtir.
Ortaçağ’ın müslüman eczacıları ilâç şekilleri, ilâç yapımında kullanılan aletler ve uygulanan yöntemlerle ilgili buluşları sayesinde eczacılık sanatının gelişmesine önemli katkıda bulunmalarından başka ilâçlar ve bunların tedavideki etkileri üzerine kitap yazmak suretiyle de Doğu droglarının ve ilâç hazırlama tekniklerinin Avrupa ülkelerinde tanınmasına imkân sağlamışlardır. Hz. Peygamber’in hastalıklarla ilgili hadislerinde, ilâç olarak kullanılan yetmiş civarında maddenin adı geçmekte ve İslâm dünyasında VIII. yüzyıldan itibaren ilâçlar hakkında birçok eserin kaleme alındığı görülmektedir. Mâsercis’in (II./VIII. yüzyıl) Kitâbü Ḳuve’l-ʿaḳāḳīr ve menâfiʿihâ ve mażârrihâ adlı eseri bu konuda yazılan ilk müstakil kitaptır. Yine ilk eserlerden olan Ya‘kūb b. İshak el-Kindî’nin (ö. 260/873 [?]) Kitâbü Cevâmiʿi’l-edviyeti’l-müfrede li-Câlînûs ’u, Galen’in basit ilâçlar hakkındaki kitabından yapılan bir özettir; Kindî ayrıca birleşik ilâçlar konusunda da Kitâbü’l-Aḳrâbâẕîn ’i yazmıştır. Huneyn b. İshak ve Câbir b. Hayyân gibi bazı IX. yüzyıl hekim ve bilginleri “el-Edviyetü’l-müfrede” adıyla birçok eser yazarken Sâbûr b. Sehl bir akrâbâzîn kaleme almış, Ali b. Rabben et-Taberî de (ö. 247/861’den sonra) Firdevsü’l-ḥikme adlı ünlü eserinin altıncı nevinin ikinci ve üçüncü makalelerini ilâçlara ayırmıştır. Ebû Bekir er-Râzî ise (ö. 313/925) bir tıp ansiklopedisi mahiyetinde olan el-Ḥâvî ’de alfabetik sıraya göre 829 ilâcın adını vermiş ve özelliklerini anlatmış, ayrıca el-Aḳrâbâẕînü’l-kebîr ve el-Aḳrâbâẕînü’ṣ-ṣaġīr adıyla iki kitap daha yazmıştır. Kayrevanlı İbnü’l-Cezzâr (ö. 369/979) el-İʿtimâd fi’l-edviyeti’l-müfrede adlı kitabında 294 basit ilâcı anlatmıştır. Ali b. Abbas el-Mecûsî’nin (ö. 384/994 [?]) Kâmilü’ṣ-ṣınâʿati’ṭ-ṭıbbiyye ’sinin ikinci cüzünün ikinci makalesinde basit ilâçlar, onuncu makalesinde de birleşik ilâçlar hakkında çok değerli bilgiler bulunmaktadır. İbn Sînâ’nın (ö. 428/1037) el-Ḳānûn fi’ṭ-ṭıbb ’ının ikinci kitabı alfabetik olarak basit ilâçlar konusuna ayrılmış ve burada 800’ün üzerinde ilâca yer verilmiştir. Bîrûnî de (ö. 453/1061 [?]) eṣ-Ṣaydele adlı eserinde 720 drogu alfabetik sırayla açıklamıştır. Ayrıca eczacılığın babası olarak kabul edilen Bîrûnî’nin bu eserinde eczacılık mesleğini tarif ettiği ve eczacının görevlerini çok açık bir şekilde belirttiği görülmektedir. Bundan yaklaşık 150 yıl sonra yazılmış olan İbnü’l-Baytâr’ın (ö. 646/1248) el-Câmiʿ li-müfredâti’l-edviye ve’l-aġẕiye adlı kitabında ise 1400 kadar bitkisel drog hakkında bilgi bulunmaktadır. Özellikle son iki kitapta Galen döneminden beri tedavide kullanılanlardan başka demirhindi, havlican, ebûcehil karpuzu, kâfur, karanfil, kargabüken, kebâbiye, küçük hindistan cevizi, kroton yağı, misk, râvend ve sandal gibi birçoğu Doğu ülkelerine has drog tanıtılmıştır. İbnü’l-Baytâr’ın basit ilâçlar konusunda el-Muġnî fi’l-edviyeti’l-müfrede adlı bir eseri daha vardır. Kûhîn el-Attâr’ın (ö. 658/1260’tan sonra) Minhâcü’d-dükkân ve düstûrü’l-aʿyân fî aʿmâl ve terâkîbi’l-edviyeti’n-nâfiʿa li’l-ebdân adlı eseri de eczacılar için yazılmış önemli bir el kitabıdır.
Başlıcaları sıralanan bu eserlerin hemen hepsi Grekçe’ye ve Latince’ye, hatta bazıları İbrânîce’ye çevrilmiş ve bunlar Avrupa’da sonraki dönemler için örnek teşkil ettikleri gibi vazgeçilmez birer kaynak olarak da asırlarca kullanılmıştır. Müslüman hekimlerin tıp, kimya ve eczacılık alanındaki üstün başarıları sayesinde bugün Batı literatüründe başta chemie “kimya” (el-kîmiyâ) kelimesi olmak üzere alcali “soda; kül, kalya” (el-kalî), alcool “alkol” (el-kühl “göz ilâcı”), syrop “şurup” (şerûb) ve elixir “öz, hulâsa” (el-iksîr) gibi Arapça kökenli 800 ilâç ve kimyasal madde ismi bulunmaktadır.
Osmanlılar’da Eczacılık. Evliya Çelebi, XVII. yüzyıl ortalarında ilâç hazırlama ve satma işiyle uğraşan esnafı attarlar, ilâç suları satanlar, macuncular, gülsuyucular, amberciler, buhurcular, ilâç yağları satanlar, esrarcılar, afyoncular, tutyacılar ve otbulucular olarak sıralamaktadır. Bu dönemde İstanbul’da bulunan attar dükkânı sayısı 2000 civarındaydı ve ayrıca 300 kadar da gezici attar vardı; toptancılar ise Mısır Çarşısı’nda satış yapıyorlardı.
Osmanlılar döneminde bugünkü anlamda eczahanelerin kuruluşu XVIII. yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren başlamış ve Kırım Savaşı (1854) sırasında İstanbul’a gelen Fransız ve İngiliz askerî hekim ve eczacılarının etkisiyle sayıları artmıştır. 1868 yılında İstanbul’da elli, Üsküdar’da on kadar eczahane olduğu ve bunların Osmanlı vatandaşı veya yabancı uyruklu gayri müslimlerce işletildiği bilinmektedir. Müslümanlar ancak 1880’li yıllardan itibaren eczahane açmaya başlamışlardır. 1900 yıllarında İstanbul’daki eczahane sayısı 200 civarındadır ve bunlardan yalnız on tanesinin sahibi Türk’tür.
XX. yüzyılın ilk yıllarında “eczacı dükkânı” denilen eczahaneler biri müşteri kabul kısmı, diğeri laboratuvar olmak üzere iki bölümden meydana geliyor ve bu iki kısım birbirinden ahşap bir camekânla ayrılıyordu. Laboratuvarda hazırlanan ilâçlar, duvarları cilâlı ağaçtan yapılmış camlı dolaplarla kaplı olan kabul bölümünde müşteriye verilirdi. Dolap raflarında genellikle Fransa’dan getirilmiş porselen ilâç kavanozları ve hazır ilâçlar, alt kısımdaki çekmecelerde de bitkisel droglar ve sağlık malzemesi bulunurdu. Zehir etkisi taşıyan ilâçlar ise bugün de olduğu gibi özel dolaplarda saklanırdı. Her eczahanenin bir iki devamlı hekimi vardı ve bunlar civardan gelen hastalara genellikle eczahanenin üstündeki muayene odasında bakarlardı. Bu uygulama hastalarla hasta sahiplerine büyük bir kolaylık sağlamakta ve eczahaneyi mahallenin sağlık merkezi haline getirmekteydi.
1900 yıllarına kadar matbûh (dekoksiyon), menkū‘ (infüzyon), müstahleb-sübye (emülsiyon), beyzî (ovül), sıbg, sıbga (tentür), hukne (lavman), lapa, kutur (göz damlası), mürevvih (liniment), hulâsa, şurup, macun ve hap adlarıyla gruplandırılan ilâçlar her hasta için reçetesine uygun biçimde özel olarak yapılırdı. Zamanla belirli bir formüle göre yapılmış hazır ilâçlar tedavi alanına girmeye başladı. “Müstahzarât-ı tıbbiyye” denilen bu ilâçların hekimler ve halk tarafından beğenilmesi üzerine sayıları kısa sürede çoğaldı ve eczacılar ilâç yapan kişiler yerine ilâç satan kişiler haline geldiler. İlk dönemlerde özellikle Fransa, Almanya ve İngiltere gibi ülkelerden getirilen hazır ilâçların rağbet kazanması üzerine İstanbul’daki bazı eczacılar da bunların terkiplerine benzer nitelikte hazır ilâç yapmaya başladılar. İstanbul’da imal edilen yerli hazır ilâçlara “müstahzarât-ı tıbbiyye-i Osmâniyye” adı verilmiştir. 1895 yılından sonra Eczacı Ethem Pertev (Ertem) tarafından yapılan “Pertev şurubu” (syrop Pertev) ve Eczacı Ali Süreyya (Kalemcioğlu) tarafından yapılan “iksîr-i Süreyyâ” (elixir toni-digestif ferrugineux) adlı iki hazır ilâç büyük bir üne kavuşmuş ve dış ülkelere dahi ihraç edilmiştir.
İslâm ülkeleri arasında ilk defa eczacılık öğretimi, İstanbul’da 1839 yılında Mekteb-i Tıbbiyye-i Adliyye-i Şâhâne’de açılan üç yıl süreli eczacı sınıfı ile başlamıştır. Daha önce eczacılar Avrupa ülkelerinde de olduğu gibi usta-çırak yöntemiyle yetişiyordu. Bu sınıfa başlangıçta yalnız askerî yatılı öğrenciler alınıyor ve mezun olduklarında askerî hastahanelerde görevlendiriliyorlardı. 1858 yılından itibaren alınan sivil ve gündüzcü öğrenciler de eczacılık okumaya başlamışlardır. Bu dönemde sivil eczacı ihtiyacını karşılamak için çıraklıktan yetişen kişilere de eczacı dükkânı açma izni veriliyor, ancak bunların Mekteb-i Tıbbiyye-i Adliyye-i Şâhâne hocaları arasından seçilen bir heyet tarafından imtihan edilmeleri ve eczacı ustası olduklarına dair bir tezkire almaları gerekiyordu. Bu şekilde eczahane açma hakkını alan kişilere “ikinci sınıf eczacı”, eczacı sınıfından veya dış ülkelerdeki bir eczacı okulundan diploma alanlara ise “birinci sınıf eczacı” unvanı veriliyordu. 1863 yılından itibaren 1277 (1861) tarihli Beledî İspençiyarlık Sanatının İcrasına Dair Nizamnâme uyarınca çıraklıktan yetişen kişilere “eczacı ustası” unvanı verme yöntemi kaldırılmıştır. 1867’de Mekteb-i Tıbbiyye-i Mülkiyye-i Şâhâne’de de bir eczacı sınıfı açılmış, 1908 yılında ise askerî ve sivil tıp okullarının birleştirilmesi üzerine eczacılık sınıflarının ikisi de kapatılarak idarî yönden yeni kurulan Tıp Fakültesi’ne bağlı Eczacı Mekteb-i Âlîsi açılmıştır. 1909’da Kadırga’daki eski Mekteb-i Tıbbiyye-i Mülkiyye-i Şâhâne binasında (Menemenli Mustafa Paşa Konağı) eczacılık öğretimine başlayan bu okul, 1960 yılına kadar Türkiye’de eczacılık öğretimi yapılan tek kurum olarak kalmıştır.
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Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1994 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 10. cildinde, 386-388 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.