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EYALET Skip to content Osmanlı taşra teşkilâtında bir beylerbeyinin idaresi altında bulunan en büyük idarî birim.
Arapça “idare etme, icra” anlamındaki iyâle kelimesinden gelir. Osmanlılar’da en büyük idarî birim karşılığında bu tabirin resmen kullanılışı XVI. yüzyıl sonlarında olmuştur. III. Murad zamanında (1574-1595) Osmanlı Devleti’nin eyalet adıyla idarî birimlere ayrıldığı görüşü yanlış olmalıdır. Çünkü bu kelimeye o dönemin belgelerinde rastlanmaz. Bunun yerine daima “beylerbeyilik” ve “vilâyet” tabirleri yer almıştır. Ancak vilâyet terimi küçük veya büyük herhangi bir idarî birim için kullanılmıştır. Beylerbeyilik ise yalnızca bu çeşit idarî birimin özel terimi niteliğini taşırken muhtemelen 1591’de onun bu idarî özelliğini yansıtmak üzere eyalet kelimesi benimsenmiş, beylerbeyilik tabirinin de bir beylerbeyinin makamı anlamında kullanılması sürmüştür.
İlk Osmanlı kaynaklarında beylerbeyi, taşrada muayyen bölgelerdeki timarlı sipahilerin kumandanı olarak geçer; doğrudan beylerbeyi idaresi altındaki böyle bir askerî teşkilâta İlhanlılar ve Selçuklular’da da rastlanır. Orhan Gazi babası Osman Bey zamanında, Alâeddin Paşa kardeşi Orhan Gazi’nin saltanat sırasında, Süleyman Paşa da yine babası Orhan Gazi döneminde sancak beyi olarak kabul edilmektedir. Orhan Gazi (1324-1362) oğlu Şehzade Murad’ı lalası Şahin’le Rumeli’ye göndermiş (1357) ve sonraları orada sancak beyleri ortaya çıkmıştır. Rumeli’de fethedilen bütün topraklar Lala Şâhin’in sorumluluğuna verilince kendisi beylerbeyi unvanını almıştı; bu arada Evrenos Bey de düzensiz gazi akıncı kuvvetlerinin başında uç beyi olarak bulunuyordu. Rumeli beylerbeyi ile diğer uç beyleri arasındaki rekabet, II. Mehmed dönemine kadar Osmanlı tarihinin en önemli meselelerinden biri oldu. Fakat Rumeli beylerbeyi, Osmanlı kuvvetlerinin fiilî kumandanı sıfatıyla bir müddet daha tek beylerbeyilik makamı olma özelliğini korudu. 1385-1387 yılları arasında Vezir Çandarlı Hayreddin, I. Murad’ın Anadolu’da kalmaya mecbur olduğu sıralarda paşa unvanı ile aynı zamanda bütün Rumeli kuvvetlerinin kumandanlığına tayin edildi. Bu şekilde Anadolu ve Rumeli’de giderek meselelerin büyümesi, sorumluluk bölgelerinin genişlemesi, Boğazlar esas alınıp devletin iki büyük idarî kısma ayrılması ile sonuçlandı. Rumeli ve Anadolu beylerbeyilikleri ortaya çıktı; bu ise devletin idarî yapısının bel kemiğini teşkil etti. 1393’te Yıldırım Bayezid Anadolu’dan ayrılıp Rumeli’ye geçmek zorunda kaldığında Kara Timurtaş Paşa’yı Ankara’da Anadolu beylerbeyi olarak bıraktı. Babasının sağlığında Yıldırım Bayezid de Kütahya ve civarındaki bu uç bölgesinde idareci olarak görev yapmıştı. İki beylerbeyiliğin ortaya çıkışından sonra da Rumeli beylerbeyi, divan toplantılarına katılıp vezirlerle bir arada oturmak, diğer beylerbeyiler arasında ön sırada bulunmak gibi devlet teşkilâtında önde gelme özelliğini korudu. II. Mehmed’in saltanatı döneminde Mahmud Paşa, Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman zamanında da Makbul İbrâhim Paşa vezîriâzamlığı Rumeli beylerbeyiliği ile birlikte yürütmüşlerdi.
Anadolu’daki beylerbeyilikler geleneksel idarî modeller çerçevesinde teşkil edilmişti. Yeni beylerbeyiliklerin çekirdeğini oluşturulan Anadolu’daki uç vilâyetleri hânedana mensup şehzadelerin idaresine veriliyordu. Kurulan üçüncü beylerbeyilik olan ve Amasya-Tokat bölgesini içine alan Rum beylerbeyiliği, I. Bayezid döneminde beylerbeyi ve paşa unvanı ile anılan, bölgenin idaresinden gerçek anlamda sorumlu lalaların gözetimindeki şehzadelerin idareci olarak bulundukları uç bölgesinden doğmuştu. Timur istilâsı ve ardından Şâhruh Mirza’nın tehdidi Osmanlılar için bu bölgenin önemini oldukça arttırdı. Canik ve Trabzon bölgesindeki yeni fetihlerle bu idarî bölgenin sınırları genişledi. Ayrıca 1468’de fethinden sonra bir şehzade ile lalasının idaresi altına verilen Karaman vilâyeti daha sonra bir beylerbeyilik halinde gelişti. 1514’te Hüsrev Paşa Karaman beylerbeyi unvanını taşımaktaydı. Rumeli beylerbeyiliğine dahil Bosna uç vilâyetinin bir beylerbeyilik olarak gelişmesi, 1463’ten 1580’e kadar bir asırdan fazla sürdü. Gelecekteki fetihler ve uç sancaklarının özel şartlarına bağlı bazı değişiklikler olmakla birlikte Osmanlılar fetih öncesi sınırları ve özellikle ilk vilâyet bölümünü korudular. Ardından sancakları beylerbeyilikler olarak yeniden düzenleyip daha serbest bıraktılar ve şartlara göre sınırları birleştirdiler.
I. Selim’in fetihlerinden sonra Suriye, Filistin, Mısır ve Hicaz’ı içine alan Arap vilâyeti, Alâüddevle vilâyeti (fethi 1515) ve Diyarbekir vilâyeti (fethi 1517, ilk tahriri 1518) kuruldu. 1520 tarihli bir vesikaya göre Rumeli vilâyetinde otuz, Anadolu vilâyetinde yirmi, Karaman’da sekiz, Rum (Amasya-Tokat) vilâyetinde beş, Arap vilâyetinde on beş, Diyarbekir vilâyetinde ise dokuz sancak bulunuyordu. Ayrıca burada, Güneydoğu Anadolu’daki yirmi sekiz aşiret müstakil livâ veya sancak şeklinde zikredilmiştir.
Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman’ın ilk saltanat yıllarında meydana gelen olayların tesiriyle Arap vilâyeti yeniden düzenlenerek Halep, Şam ve Mısır beylerbeyiliklerine ayrıldı. Alâüddevle vilâyetine de 1522’de bir Osmanlı beylerbeyi tayin edildi. 1533’te Cezayir beylerbeyiliği kurularak idaresi aynı zamanda kaptanıderyâlığa getirilen Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa’ya verildi. Böylece deniz uç bölgesinin bir beylerbeyilik haline dönüşmesine, özellikle Andrea Doria’nın Koron’u zaptı ve İmparator V. Karl’ın Akdeniz’deki Haçlı faaliyetleri hız kazandırmış oluyordu. 1534’te bir Batı raporuna göre Osmanlı Devleti’ndeki beylerbeyilikler, deniz beylerbeyiliği olarak Cezayir ile Rumeli, Anadolu, Karaman, Amasya-Tokat (Rum), Alâüddevle, Diyarbekir, Şam ve Mısır’dan ibaretti.
Kanûnî Sultan Süleyman zamanındaki yeni fetihler daha başka beylerbeyiliklerin de teşkiline yol açtı. Asya kesiminde 1534’te Azerbaycan ve Bağdat, Ağustos 1548’de Van, 1534’te Erzurum, Eylül 1549’da Akçakale; Rumeli kesiminde Ağustos 1541’de Budin, 1552’de Tımışvar beylerbeyilikleri teşkil edildi. Fetihten hemen sonra buralara derhal bir beylerbeyi tayin edilerek Kanûnî döneminde yeni bir uygulama getirilmiş oldu. 1568’de Rumeli beylerbeyiliğine bağlı Kefe sancağı, Volga havzasına planlanan Astarhan (Hacıtarhan) seferi dolayısıyla bir beylerbeyilik haline getirildi. 1571’de fethinden sonra Kıbrıs’ın korunması için büyük kuvvetlere ihtiyaç duyulduğundan Lefkoşe beylerbeyilik merkezi oldu ve buraya Alâiye, Tarsus, İçel, Sis ve Trablusşam sancakları bağlandı. Birçok beylerbeyilik de 1578-1590 Osmanlı-Safevî mücadelesi sonucu Kafkasya topraklarının fethiyle teşkil edilmiş, ancak geçici askerî gayelerle oluşturulan bu beylerbeyiliklerden yalnızca Çıldır ve Kars, I. Abbas’ın idaresindeki Safevî karşı saldırılarından sonra da ayakta kalabilmişti.
1609 tarihli Ayn Ali Efendi’nin verdiği listede imparatorlukta otuz iki eyaletin adı zikredilmektedir. Bunlardan yirmi üçü timar sisteminin uygulandığı normal eyaletler olup Rumeli, Anadolu, Karaman, Budin, Tımışvar, Bosna, Cezâyir-i Bahr-i Sefîd, Kıbrıs, Dulkadır (eski Alâüddevle vilâyeti veya Maraş), Diyarbekir, Rum, Erzurum, Şam, Trablusşam, Halep, Rakka, Kars, Çıldır, Trabzon, Kefe, Musul, Van ve Şehrizor’dur. Dokuz eyalet ise sâlyâneli eyalet olup bunların yıllık vergi gelirleri timar olarak dağıtılmaz, doğrudan doğruya hazine adına toplanırdı. Beylerbeyiler, mahallî askerler ve diğer görevlilerin ücretleri eyaletin bu yıllık vergi gelirlerinden karşılanır, kalan kısım ise İstanbul’a gönderilirdi. Bu sâlyâneli eyaletler Mısır, Bağdat Yemen, Habeş, Basra, Lahsâ, Cezâyir-i Garb, Trablusgarp ve Tunus idi.
Koçi Bey tarafından verilen ve 1640’lara ait olduğu sanılan listede tek fark, Karadeniz kıyılarını tehdit eden Kazaklar’ın akınlarını durdurmak maksadıyla kurulan Özü eyaletinin ilâve edilmiş olmasıdır. Bu eyalet, Tuna ve Karadeniz’in batı kıyılarındaki sancakları içine almaktadır. Her iki listede de 1596’daki fetihlerden sonra teşkil edilmiş olmalarına rağmen Kanije ve Eğri eyaletleri zikredilmemiştir. Kâtib Çelebi’nin Cihannümâ ’sında da Adana eyaletinin ilâvesi, Karaman yerine Konya, Rum yerine Sivas, Dulkadır yerine Maraş isimlerinin kullanılması gibi farklılıkların dışında aynı eyaletlere rastlanır.
Beylerbeyilik için eyalet teriminin kullanılması, XVI. yüzyılın sonlarında yaygınlık kazanmaya başlamış olmakla birlikte eski vesikalarda genel anlamıyla da olsa bu tabire tesadüf edilmektedir. Ayrıca yeni dönemde önemli eyaletlere, iki tuğlu beylerbeyilerin görev yaptığı komşu eyaletler üzerinde belirli bir nüfuza sahip vezir rütbeli ve üç tuğlu beylerbeyiler tayin edilmiştir. Yine bu dönemlerde genel eğilim, Gürcistan ve Azerbaycan bölgelerinde 1578’den sonra görüldüğü gibi askerî bakımdan daha yakından ilgilenmeyi kolaylaştıran küçük beylerbeyilikler oluşturmaktı. Suriye’de dördüncü eyalet olan Sayda, 1614’te bölgeyi daha iyi kontrol edebilmek maksadıyla kurulmuştu.
Bir eyalet, sancak beyinin idaresi altında sancak veya liva denilen idarî birimlerden meydana geliyordu. Sancak daima temel bir idarî birimdi ve beylerbeyinin bizzat kendisi “paşa sancağı” adı verilen merkez sancakta bulunuyordu. Onun hassı olarak her sancaktan bazı yerler ve kasabaların gelir kaynakları tahsis edilmişti. Bir beylerbeyinin başta gelen vazifeleri tayin beratlarında özetlenmiştir. Beylerbeyiler, sultanın icra gücünün temsilcileri olarak eyaletin bütün işlerinden sorumlu olurlar ve vali sıfatıyla anılırlar, kadıların hükümlerini ve padişahın emirlerini uygulamaya koyarlardı. Ayrıca beylerbeyilik divanında askerî statüdeki şahıslarla ilgili meselelerde karar verme yetkileri de vardı. Özellikle vezir unvanlı beylerbeyiler daha fazla yetkiye ve büyük güce sahip bulunuyorlardı. Beylerbeyilerin başta gelen idarî görevi halkın emniyetini sağlamak, padişahın emirlerine karşı gelenleri ve kanunları tanımayanları takip etmekti. Ancak bir eyaletteki kadı ve mal defterdarının kararlarında beylerbeyilere bağlı olmadığı ve doğrudan merkezî hükümete karşı sorumlu olduğu da önemle belirtilmelidir. Ayrıca bazı büyük şehirlerdeki yeniçeri birliklerinin ağaları da beylerbeyilere bağlı olmadıkları gibi beylerbeyiler yeniçeri garnizonlarının bulunduğu kalelere asla giremezlerdi. Bu şekilde eyalet idaresinde karşılıklı bir denge ve kontrol sistemi kurulmuştu. Bu sınırlamalar ve görev yerlerinin sık sık değişmesi de şüphesiz beylerbeyilerin fazla güçlenmelerini ve bağımsız hale gelmelerini önleme düşüncesinden kaynaklanmaktaydı.
Beylerbeyilik veya eyalet temel olarak timar sistemi çerçevesinde teşkil edilmişti ve bir beylerbeyi önce eyaletindeki timarlı sipahi ordusundan sorumlu bulunmaktaydı. Onun emri altındaki eyalet kuvvetleri devlet ordusunun büyük bir askerî ünitesini oluştururdu. Beylerbeyinin başta gelen görevi, en mükemmel şekilde kuvvetlerini hazırlayıp orduya katılmaktı. Sipahilerin tayin ve terfileri ona bağlı bulunuyordu. Beylerbeyi belirli bir miktara kadar timar verme hakkına da sahipti. Onun idaresi altındaki defter kethüdâsı ve timar defterdarı bu işlerle uğraşırdı. Timarların kaydedildiği esas kütük defterleri olan ve her sancak için ayrı ayrı hazırlanan icmal ve mufassal defterlerinin birer sûreti merkezden eyaletlere gönderilirdi.
Çöküş döneminde merkezî otoritenin zayıflamasıyla bütün bu sistem bozuldu. Bağdat ve Kuzey Afrika’da görüldüğü gibi bazı uzak eyaletlerde yeniçeriler mahallî kuvvetli bir kontrol ve bir idarî kademeleşme meydana getirdiler. Mısır’da ise gerçek kontrol Memlük beylerinin eline geçti. Doğu Anadolu’da Abaza Paşa’nın idaresi altındaki Celâlî grupları ve eyalet kuvvetlerinin şiddetli tepkilerinden önce yeniçeri gruplarının güçlerini yerleştirme teşebbüsleri başarısız olmuştu. Fakat eyaletlerde asıl değişiklikleri beraberinde getiren husus timar sistemindeki düzensizlik ve çöküştü. Nitekim artık eyaletlerdeki vergi gelirlerinin önemli bir bölümü timar olarak dağıtılmıyor, doğrudan doğruya iltizam usulüyle hazine adına toplanıyordu. Özellikle valilerin bu vergileri toplama şartıyla valilik makamına tayin edilmeleri yaygınlık kazandı. Böyle bir uygulama Mısır gibi bazı uzak eyaletlerde öteden beri yapılmaktaydı. Bu şekilde valiliğe yapılan tayinle eyaletin vergi gelirlerinin nakit olarak hazineye girişi garanti altına alınmış oluyordu. Ayrıca valiler, masraflarını kendileri karşılamak suretiyle kapı halkı bulundurmaya hükümet merkezi tarafından teşvik ediliyorlardı. Bütün bu gelişmeler, XVIII. yüzyılda eyaletlerin daha geniş bir muhtariyet kazanması yolunu hazırladı. Aynı dönemde âyan adı verilen mahallî ileri gelenler eyaletlerde giderek güçlenmeye başladılar; hatta onlarla iş birliği yapmayan valilerin güçleri ve nüfuzları kısıtlı kaldı. Hükümet merkezinin, paşa ve vezir unvanlı merkezden tayin edilen valileri yerlerinde tutma çabalarına rağmen bu âyanın güçlüleri valilikleri elde etmeyi, sadece uzak eyaletlerde değil aynı zamanda Anadolu ve Rumeli’de dahi gerçek anlamda mahallî hânedanlar kurmayı başardılar.
1812’de II. Mahmud eyaletlerde yeniden merkezî otoriteyi kurmak için bu tip âyan ve paşalara karşı mücadele başlattı. 1826’dan sonra eyaletleri “müşîriyet” olarak yeniden teşkilâtlandırdı ve bunları, yeni ordunun kurulması maksadıyla malî işlerde olduğu gibi askerî bakımdan da büyük güce ve yetkiye sahip kılınan müşirlere verdi (Lutfî, V, 107). 1839’da Tanzimat’ın ilânı ile eyaletlerdeki malî işler bağımsız muhassılların sorumluluğuna verildi; böylece müşirlerin yetkisi asayiş ve emniyet göreviyle kısıtlanmış oluyordu. Daha sonra eyalet teşkilâtında Batı tesiri altında önemli değişiklikler ortaya çıktı. Valilerin mesuliyetlerini paylaşan idare meclisleri kuruldu ve eyaletlerin birçoğunun sınırları daha da küçültüldü. Böylece 1864’te eyalet sistemi yerine vilâyetler teşekkül etti. Bu sonuncu sistem Cumhuriyet döneminde de muhafaza edilerek her birinin başında birer valinin bulunduğu illere dönüştürüldü.
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