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FERÂİZ Skip to content İslâm miras hukukunu inceleyen ilim dalı.
Ferâiz farz kökünden türemiş farîza kelimesinin çoğuludur. Farz masdar olarak “bir şeyi belirlemek, takdir etmek, kesinleştirmek, açıklamak” mânasına gelir. İsim olarak farz ve farîza kelimeleri “takdir ve tayin edilmiş şey, belirlenmiş pay” anlamındadır. Farz ile eş anlamlı olan farîza, İslâm literatüründe mükelleften yapılması kesin ve bağlayıcı bir şekilde istenen dinî görevleri ifade ettiği gibi, evlenme akdi gereği kadına ödenmesi gereken mehir ve mirasçıların terikedeki payları da önceden belirlenmiş olduğu için farîza olarak anılır. Kur’an’da farîza kelimesinin son iki anlamda kullanıldığı görülür (bk. el-Bakara 2/236; en-Nisâ 4/11, 24; et-Tevbe 9/60). Bununla birlikte her dinî görevin literatürde ayrı bir isimle anılması sebebiyle olmalıdır ki ferâiz giderek mirasçıların terikedeki paylarını ifade eden bir terim halini almıştır. Bu maktû paylar (bk. ASHÂBÜ’l-FERÂİZ ) İslâm miras hukukunun en önemli kısmını oluşturduğundan miras hukukuna “paylar ilmi” anlamındaki ilmü’l-ferâiz denmeye ve konu klasik fıkıh kitaplarında “kitâbü’l-ferâiz” başlığı altında ele alınmaya başlanmıştır. Bu konuda uzmanlaşan âlimlere de fâriz, ferâizî, farazî denilmiştir.
Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de, ölenin terikesinde mirasçılara ait payların oldukça ayrıntılı bir şekilde belirtilmiş olması (bk. en-Nisâ 4/11-12, 176), Hz. Peygamber’in de konuyla ilgili gerek ilâve açıklamaları ve uygulama örnekleri, gerekse mirasın paylaştırılmasında bu ölçülerin iyi bilinip öğretilmesini ve korunmasını teşvik eden sözleri, ferâiz ilminin Resûl-i Ekrem döneminden itibaren doğup gelişmesinin temel sebebini oluşturmuştur.
Kur’an’da yer almayan ferâiz kelimesinin hadislerde sıkça kullanıldığı ve bununla temel dinî görevlerin, emir ve yasakların yanı sıra (bk. Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “farîża” md.) mirasçıların terikedeki paylarının, hatta mirasın paylaştırılması ilminin kastedildiği de görülür. Meselâ malın ferâiz ehli arasında Allah’ın kitabına göre paylaştırılması gereğini vurgulayan hadiste (Buhârî, “Ferâʾiż”, 5, 7, 9, 10; Müslim, “Ferâʾiż”, 2-4; Ebû Dâvûd, “Ferâʾiż”, 7) veya Halife Ömer’in mirasçıların paylarında arttırma yapılamayacağını ifade eden sözünde (Ebû Dâvûd, “Ferâʾiż”, 5) ferâiz kelimesi “miras payları” anlamında kullanılmıştır. “Ferâizi öğrenin ve öğretin, çünkü ferâiz ilmin yarısı olup unutulacaktır. Ümmetimden çekilip alınacak ilk ilim de odur” (İbn Mâce, “Ferâʾiż”, I; Şevkânî, VI, 61; Müttakī el-Hindî, X, 166); “Kur’an’ı ve ferâizi öğrenin ve insanlara da öğretin. Ben aranızdan ayrılacağım gibi ilim de bir gün ortadan kalkacaktır. Öyle bir zaman gelecek ki iki kişi bir farîzada ve dinî bir meselede anlaşmazlığa düşecek de aralarında hüküm verecek birini bulamayacaktır” (Tirmizî, “Ferâʾiż”, 2; Şevkânî, VI, 61) meâlindeki hadislerde veya bazı sahâbîlerin belli alanlardaki üstünlüklerini, bu arada Zeyd b. Sâbit’in ashap içinde ferâizi en iyi bilen kimse olduğunu belirten hadiste (a.g.e. , VI, 61) geçen ferâiz kelimeleriyle İslâm âlimlerinin ağırlıklı görüşüne göre mirasın paylaşımını konu alan ilim dalı kastedilmiştir. Bu hadislerin bir kısmı rivayet tekniği bakımından zayıf hadis grubunda yer almakla birlikte sonraki dönemde oluşan fıkıh literatüründe ittifakla kabul görmüş, ferâiz ilim dalının önemi ve ferâiz teriminin benimsenmesi bu rivayetlere dayandırılmıştır.
Her ne kadar İbn Haldûn ile birlikte bazı İslâm âlimleri, yukarıda zikredilen hadislerde geçen ferâiz kelimelerinin miras da dahil olmak üzere ibâdât ve muamelât konusundaki teklifî-dinî hüküm ve görevler anlamında kullanıldığını, ferâizi bilmenin ilmin yarısı olduğu ifadesinin de ancak bu takdirde doğru sayılacağını, İslâm miras hukuku ilim dalı ve bunun terimlerinin daha sonra oluştuğunu, hadislerdeki ferâiz kelimesine bu son anlamı yüklemenin bir zorlama olacağını ileri sürmüşlerse de (el-ʿİber , I, 377; Abdülhay el-Kettânî, III, 118-120), hadislerde ve sahâbe sözlerinde geçen bütün farîza-ferâiz kelimelerine “dinî farzlar ve görevler” anlamının verilmesi de mümkün görünmemektedir. Nitekim Hz. Ömer, Ebû Mûsâ el-Eş‘arî, Abdullah b. Mes‘ûd başta olmak üzere birçok sahâbîden ve tâbiîn âlimlerinden nakledilen ve Kur’an, Sünnet, haccın menâsiki ve talâkın yanı sıra ferâizi de öğrenmenin önemini vurgulayan rivayetler mevcuttur (Dârimî, “Ferâʾiż”, 1; Abdülhay el-Kettânî, III, 115-120). Öte yandan mirasçıların payları, hakları ve öncelikleri Kur’an ve Sünnet’te ayrıntılı olarak belirtildiği, İslâm öncesi döneme göre bu alanda önemli değişiklikler yapıldığı ve mirasçıların haklarının belirlenmesi ve paylarının hesaplanması belli seviyede ensâb ve matematik bilgisini gerektirdiği için ferâiz ilminin Hz. Peygamber döneminde zorunlu olarak doğduğu, ferâizin terim anlamını da yine bu dönemde kazandığı şeklindeki yaygın görüş daha isabetli görünmektedir. Nitekim Ebû Bekir İbnü’l-Arabî de, “İlim üçtür: Kur’an, Sünnet ve âdil farîza” (Ebû Dâvûd, “Ferâʾiż”, 1; İbn Mâce, “Muḳaddime”, 11, 16) meâlindeki hadisten hareketle ferâiz ilminin dinî ilimlerin üçte birini oluşturduğunu, sahâbe döneminden itibaren bu ilme büyük önem verildiğini, ilim konusunda şehir halkı ile bedeviler arasında mevcut temel farkın ferâizi bilmekten ibaret bulunduğunu belirterek sonraki dönemlerde bu ilme gereken önemin verilmediğinden ve ticarî akid ve işlemlerin daha çok ilgi gördüğünden şikâyet eder (Aḥkâmü’l-Ḳurʾân , I, 330-331). Ancak hadislerde geçen, ferâizin ilmin yarısı veya üçte biri olduğu şeklindeki ifadelerin gerçek bir oran bildirmekten ziyade ferâiz hükümlerini öğrenip öğretmenin önemini vurgulama amacı taşıdığı açıktır.
Ana hatları Kur’an’da ve Hz. Peygamber’in söz ve uygulamalarında belirlendiğinden naklî bir ilim karakteri taşıyan ferâiz, sahâbe döneminden itibaren müslümanlar arasında ayrı bir önemle ele alınmış, nesilden nesile intikal ederek gelişen ve İslâm hukukunun hareket noktasını teşkil eden geleneksel dinî-hukukî öğretinin önemli bir bölümünü teşkil etmiştir. İlk dönemden itibaren konu başlıklarına (bab) göre tasnif edilen hadis kitaplarının hemen hemen tamamında yer alan ferâiz bölümlerinde (bk. el-Muvaṭṭaʾ , “Ferâʾiż”, 1-16; Abdürrezzâk es-San‘ânî, X, 247-309; İbn Ebû Şeybe, VI, 239-302, Buhârî, “Ferâʾiż”, 1-30) İslâm miras hukukuyla ilgili olarak Hz. Peygamber’den, sahâbe ve tâbiînden rivayet edilen söz ve uygulamalar derlenmeye çalışılmış, sahâbe döneminden itibaren bu başlık altında yazılan veya rivayet edilen müstakil eserlerde de önceleri sadece bu konuya dair nakillere yer verilirken giderek bu naklî bilgiler etrafında bir hukuk doktrini gelişmeye başlamıştır.
Ferâiz konusunda ilk eseri ashaptan Zeyd b. Sâbit’in (ö. 45/665) telif ettiği (Beyhakī, VI, 247-249; İbn Hayr, s. 263), tâbiînden Ebü’z-Zinâd’ın (ö. 130/748) bu esere şerh yazdığı (Sezgin, I/3, s. 21-22), Eyyûb es-Sahtiyânî, İbn Şübrüme, İbn Ebû Leylâ gibi tâbiîn âlimlerinin de ferâizle ilgili eserlerinin bulunduğu şeklindeki rivayetler (Keşfü’ẓ-ẓunûn , II, 1245-1246) göz önüne alınarak bu alanda eser telif ve tedvinine fıkıh ekollerinin oluşumundan çok önce başlandığı söylenebilir. Yine Süfyân es-Sevrî (ö. 161/778), Hasan b. Ziyâd, Ebû Hâzim el-Kādî, Muhammed b. Nasr el-Mervezî ve Tahâvî de bu alanda müstakil eser yazan ilk müellifler arasında gösterilir. Kâtib Çelebi ferâiz konusunda elliye yakın eser veya müelliften söz etmektedir (Keşfü’ẓ-ẓunûn , II, 1244-1252, ayrıca bk. Îżâḥu’l-meknûn , II, 184-185). Bunlar arasında Hanefî ulemâsından Secâvendî’nin el-Ferâʾiżü’s-Sirâciyye , Şâfiî fakihi İbnü’l-Mütefennine er-Rahbî’nin el-Ferâʾiżü’r-Raḥbiyye adlı eserleri rağbet görmüş ve üzerlerinde birçok şerh ve hâşiye çalışması yapılmıştır.
İslâm miras hukukunun klasik adı olan ferâiz ilmi, bu alanda yazılan müstakil eserlerin yanı sıra ilk dönemden itibaren fürû-i fıkıh eserlerinde de “kitâbü’l-ferâiz” başlığı altında ayrı bir bölüm halinde ele alınmış (bk. Muhammed b. Hasan eş-Şeybânî, IV, 191-254; Şâfiî, IV, 72-88; Serahsî, XXIX, 136-212; XXX, 2-103), fakat konunun genelde naklî bilgilere dayanması sebebiyle fakihler ve fıkıh ekolleri arasında ortaya çıkan görüş ayrılıkları ve doktriner tartışmalar fıkhın diğer alt dallarına nisbetle oldukça sınırlı kalmıştır. Naklî bilgilerin yanında belli ölçüde matematik bilgisini de gerektiren ferâiz ilminin fıkhın diğer dallarına göre kısmen farklılık taşıdığı, hatta bu ilmin zaman zaman fıkıhtan ayrı bir ilim dalı veya fürû-i fıkhın ikinci yarısı olarak algılandığı ve fıkıh-ferâiz ayırımı yapıldığı da söylenebilir. el-Hidâye , Bedâʾiʿu’ṣ-ṣanâʾiʿ gibi gibi klasik fıkıh kitaplarında ferâiz bölümünün bulunmayışı, ferâiz ilminin gerek kaynak ve metot itibariyle, gerekse bu alanda yazılan müstakil eserlerle ayrı bir ilmî disiplin haline gelmiş olmasıyla da izah edilebilir.
Ferâizle ilgili olarak yazılan müstakil eserlerde ve klasik dönem fıkıh kitaplarının ferâiz bölümlerinde genelde bu ilmin önemi vurgulandıktan sonra terike üzerindeki hak ve borçlar, miras hakkına sahip gruplar ve bunların hisseleri, mirasa engel durumlar, terikenin paylaşımıyla ilgili birtakım özel problemler ve çözüm usulleri, cenin, mefkūd, mürted, esir gibi özel konumda bulunan mirasçıların hakları ele alınır.
Klasik fıkıh literatüründeki konuların modern hukuk ilminin sistematik ve metoduyla incelenmesi temayülünün hâkim olduğu çağımızda İslâm miras hukuku alanında kaleme alınan eserler, klasik ferâiz literatürünün devamı olmalarının yanı sıra konuyu pratik ve anlaşılır tarzda inceleyip modern hukukla karşılaştırmaları, hükümlerin gerekçe ve hikmetlerine temas etmeleri itibariyle de ayrı bir önem taşırlar. Bunlar arasında Muhammed Ebû Zehre’nin Aḥkâmü’t-terikât ve’l-mevârîs̱ (Kahire, ts.), Abdürrahîm Kişkî’nin el-Mîrâs̱ü’l-muḳārin (Kahire 1961), Muhammed Mustafa Şelebî’nin Aḥkâmü’l-mevârîs̱ (Beyrut 1978), Hasan Hâlid – Adnân Necâ’nın el-Mevârîs̱ fi’ş-şerîʿati’l-İslâmiyye (Beyrut 1987), Muhammed Ali es-Sâbûnî’nin el-Mevârîs̱ fi’ş-şerîʿati’l-İslâmiyye (Dımaşk 1989), Hamza Aktan’ın Mukayeseli İslâm Miras Hukuku (İstanbul 1991) adlı eserleri sayılabilir.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Tehânevî, Keşşâf , I, 32.
Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “farîża” md.
el-Muvaṭṭaʾ , “Ferâʾiż”, 1-16.
Dârimî, “Ferâʾiż”, 1.
Buhârî, “Ḥuṣûmât”, 7, “Ferâʾiż”, 1-30.
Müslim, “Ferâʾiż”, 2-4.
İbn Mâce, “Ferâʾiż”, 1, “Muḳaddime”, 11, 16.
Ebû Dâvûd, “Ferâʾiż”, 1, 5.
Tirmizî, “Ferâʾiż”, 2.
Zeyd b. Ali, Müsned (nşr. Abdülazîz el-Bağdâdî), Beyrut 1981, s. 325.
Muhammed b. Hasan eş-Şeybânî, el-Ḥücce ʿalâ ehli’l-Medîne (nşr. Mehdî Hasan el-Kîlânî), Haydarâbâd 1968, IV, 191-254.
Şâfiî, el-Üm , IV, 72-88.
Abdürrezzâk es-San‘ânî, el-Muṣannef , X, 247-309.
İbn Ebû Şeybe, el-Muṣannef (nşr. Kemâl Yûsuf el-Hût), Beyrut 1409/1989, VI, 239-302.
Ahmed b. Hanbel, el-ʿİlel (Vasiyyullah) , II, 66.
Hârizmî, Mefâtîḥu’l-ʿulûm , Kahire 1342, s. 15-16.
Beyhakī, es-Sünenü’l-kübrâ , VI, 208-263.
Serahsî, el-Mebsûṭ , XXIX, 136-212; XXX, 2-103.
Ebû Bekir İbnü’l-Arabî, Aḥkâmü’l-Ḳurʾân , I, 330-331.
İbn Hayr, Fehrese , s. 263-266.
İbn Haldûn, el-ʿİber , I, 376-377, 404.
Taşköprizâde, Miftâḥu’s-saʿâde , I, 393; II, 600.
Müttakī el-Hindî, Kenzü’l-ʿummâl , X, 166, 238.
Keşfü’ẓ-ẓunûn , II, 1244-1252.
Şevkânî, Neylü’l-evṭâr , VI, 61-64.
İbn Âbidîn, Reddü’l-muḥtâr (Kahire) , VI, 757-758.
Îżâḥu’l-meknûn , II, 184-185.
Sezgin, GAS (Ar.) , I/3, s. 15-18, 21-22.
Abdülhay el-Kettânî, et-Terâtîbü’l-idâriyye (Özel) , II, 36-38; III, 50-52, 115-120.
Th. W. Juynboll, “Ferâ’iz”, İA , IV, 551.
a.mlf., “Farāʾiḍ”, EI2 (İng.) , II, 783.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1995 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 12. cildinde, 362-363 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.