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FİRÂSET Skip to content İnsanların, diğer varlık ve olayların iç yüzünü keşfetme, gelecek hakkında doğru tahminlerde bulunma melekesi anlamında bir terim ve bu konuyu ele alan ilim dalı.
1/2 Müellif: SÜLEYMAN ULUDAĞ Bölüme Git
Sözlükte “keşfetme, sezme, ileri görüşlülük” gibi mânalara gelen firâset kelimesi dar anlamda, bir kimsenin dış görünüşüne bakarak onun ahlâk ve karak…
2/2 Müellif: SALİM ÖĞÜT Bölüme Git
FIKIH. Klasik dönem İslâm kültüründe ayrı bir ilim dalı olarak itibar ve önem kazanan firâsetin zamanla İslâm hukuk literatüründe de yer aldığı ve öze…
Sözlükte “keşfetme, sezme, ileri görüşlülük” gibi mânalara gelen firâset kelimesi dar anlamda, bir kimsenin dış görünüşüne bakarak onun ahlâk ve karakteri hakkında tahminde bulunmayı ifade eder (Râgıb el-İsfahânî, s. 186). Daha geniş anlamda ise akıl ve duyu organlarıyla bilinemeyen, ancak sezgi gücüyle ulaşılan bütün bilgi alanlarını kapsar.
Kaynaklarda hikemî ve tabii, riyâzî, ilâhî olmak üzere üç firâset türünden söz edilir. Hikemî ve tabii firâset anlayışı İslâm dünyasına İslâm öncesi kültürlerden geçmiştir. Aristo’ya mal edilerek Yuhannâ b. Bıtrîḳ tarafından Arapça’ya tercüme edilen Kitâbü’s-Siyâse fî tedbîri’r-riyâse (Sırrü’l-esrâr) adlı apokrif eser İslâm toplumundaki bu tür firâset anlayışını geniş ölçüde etkilemiştir. Rivayete göre Aristo bu eserde öğrencisi İskender’e öğütler vermiş, ona savaşta hangi tarafın galip geleceğini veya mağlûp olacağını önceden tahmin etmenin ve böylece dünyaya hâkim olmanın yollarını ve savaş tekniğini öğretmiştir. Bundan dolayı müslüman hükümdarlar bu tür eserlere ilgi duymuşlardır. Filozof Kindî Kitâbü’l-Firâse adıyla bir risâle kaleme almış, Ebû Bekir er-Râzî de tıpla ilgili Kitâbü’l-Manṣûrî ’nin ikinci makalesini bu konuya ayırmıştır. Fahreddin er-Râzî’nin Kitâbü’l-Firâse ’si de bu anlayışla yazılan bir eserdir. Bu çalışmalar sonucunda İslâm dünyasında firâset konusu çeşitli dalları olan kapsamlı bir ilim haline gelmiştir.
Firâseti (physiognomy, cardiognosy) bir ilim olarak temellendirmeye çalışanlara göre bir kimsenin fizikî yapısına yani boyuna, rengine, çeşitli organlarının yapısına, el ve yüz hatlarına bakarak onun ahlâk ve karakterini teşhis etmek mümkündür. Bundan dolayı ilk ve orta çağlarda hükümdarlar, kendilerine görev verecekleri kimselerin seçiminde bu ilmin verilerinden faydalanmak istemişlerdir.
Taşköprizâde’ye göre “ilmü’l-kıyâfe” adıyla da anılan firâset ilminden doğan diğer ilimler şunlardır: İlmü’ş-şâmât ve’l-hayalân (insandaki ben vb. şeylere bakıp onun iç dünyasını keşfetmek), ilmü’l-kef veya ilmü’l-esârîr (kişinin el, ayak ve yüz hatlarına bakıp huyunu ve şahsiyetini anlamak), ilmü’l-ektâf (keçi ve koyunun kürek kemiğine bakıp savaş, barış, kıtlık ve bolluk konusunda bir sonuç çıkarmak), ilmü’l-ırâfe (şu anda meydana gelen bazı olaylardan hareketle gelecekteki olaylar hakkında akıl yürütmek), ilmü’l-ihtilâc (organlarda görülen seyirme, çarpıntı vb. durumlardan ileride meydana gelecek olaylara dair sonuç çıkarmak), ilmü’l-ihtidâ bi’l-berâri ve’l-akfâr (sahra ve çöllerde yön tayin etmek), ilmü istinbâti’l-maâdin (madenlerin yerlerini belirlemek), ilmü’r-riyâfe (toprağın nemine, üzerindeki bitkilere ve orada barınan canlılara bakarak yeraltı sularını bulmak), ilmü nüzûli’l-gays (yağmurun yağıp yağmayacağını tahmin etmek), ilmü kıyâfeti’l-eser (iz sürmek), ilmü kıyâfeti’l-beşer (insanların organlarına ve bunlar arasındaki ilişki ve oranlara bakıp kişilerin ruh yapılarını teşhis etmek, iki kişi arasındaki benzerliği dikkate alıp aralarında nesep bağı bulunup bulunmadığını belirlemek).
Araplar’ın İslâm’dan önce ilmü kıyâfeti’l-eser ve ilmü kıyâfeti’l-beşer alanında son derece uzmanlaştıkları, hatta yerdeki ize bakıp sahibinin yaşı, cinsiyeti, evli olup olmadığı hakkında doğru tahminlerde bulundukları bilinmektedir. Meselâ Benî Müdlic, Benî Leheb ve Nizâr oğulları firâsetteki isabetli tahminleriyle tanınmışlardır. İslâm’dan sonra ise İyâs b. Muâviye, İmam Şâfiî, Ahmed b. Tolun ve Halife Mu‘tez-Billâh bu alanda meşhur olmuşlardır. Hz. Peygamber’in, Medine’ye hicret ederken bir iz sürücünün rehberliğinden faydalandığı ve diğer bir iz sürücünün Üsâme’nin Zeyd’in oğlu olduğunu tesbit etmesinden memnun olduğu rivayet edilir (Buhârî, “Ferâʾiż”, 31; Müslim, “Raḍâʿ”, 40).
Genellikle keskin bir zekâ ve üstün sezgi gücüne sahip olan kişilerin sıkı bir perhiz ve çile sonucu ruhî ve fikrî yönlerini güçlendirerek firâset sahibi olmaları mümkündür. Başka bir ifadeyle madde âleminden ve bedenî nazlardan soyutlanan insan herhangi bir kişi veya olay hakkında isabetli tahminler yapabilir. “Riyâzî firâset” denilen bu tür firâset müslümanlarda olduğu gibi gayri müslimlerde de bulunabilir (İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, II, 507).
Allah’ın, kalbine attığı bir nur ile kulun hakkı bâtıldan, doğruyu yanlıştan, faydalıyı zararlıdan ayırmasına ve muhataplarının karakterlerini teşhis etmesine “ilâhî firâset” adı verilmiştir. “Müminin firâsetinden sakınınız, zira o Allah’ın nuru ile bakar” (Tirmizî, “Tefsîr”, 16) meâlindeki hadiste bu tür firâsete işaret edilmiştir. Bu nevi firâsetin pratiği zâhir âlimlerinde de görülmekle birlikte daha çok sûfîler arasında yaygındır. Kaynaklarda İmam Şâfiî’nin firâset sahibi olduğu, hatta İslâm dünyasında firâsete dair ilk eseri onun yazdığı kaydedilerek firâsetlerinden, firâsete esas aldığı kurallardan örnekler verilir (Abdülkerîm Zehûr Adî, LVIII/2, s. 343-363). İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye de Takıyyüddin İbn Teymiyye’nin firâsetini gösteren bazı olaylardan bahseder (Medâricü’s-sâlikîn , II, 510).
Firâset konusuyla daha çok ilgilenen sûfîler bu terimi “ilham” anlamında kullanmışlar ve bazı hallerde onu gaybı bilmenin bir aracı olarak görmüşlerdir. Seyyid Şerîf el-Cürcânî, firâsetin “kesin bilginin keşif yoluyla elde edilmesi, gaybın görülmesi” anlamına geldiğini belirtirken terimin bu mânasına işaret etmiştir (et-Taʿrîfât , “firâse” md.). Sûfîlere göre firâset sahibi müminin Allah’ın nuruyla bakması Allah’ın o kulun gören gözü olması anlamına gelir (Kuşeyrî, s. 480, 504). Böyle bir insan muhatabı hakkında isabetli teşhis koyar, onu her yönüyle tanır, aklından geçeni ve kalbinde gizlediği hususları bilir. Tasavvufta velîlerin firâsetinin hiç şaşmadığına veya hata payının çok az olduğuna inanılır. Aslında ilhamdan ibaret olan firâseti keramet gibi Allah’ın sevdiği kuluna bir lutfu olarak görmek gerekir. Velîlerin hayat hikâyelerini anlatan Sülemî ve Ferîdüddin Attâr gibi mutasavvıf yazarlar, bir velînin büyüklüğünü ifade ederken onun firâset sahibi olduğuna işaret etmeyi ihmal etmezler (meselâ bk. Sülemî, s. 126, 156; Herevî, Ṭabaḳāt , s. 157, 242, 372, 471, 521; Attâr, s. 785). Rivayete göre keskin firâset sahibi olduğu söylenen Şah b. Şücâ‘-ı Kirmânî tahminlerinde kolay kolay yanılmazdı. Ahmed b. Âsım el-Antâkî sıdk ehlinin kalp casusu olduğunu söylerdi (Kuşeyrî, s. 483, 485). Cüneyd-i Bağdâdî’nin de müslüman kılığındaki bir gencin yahudi olduğunu ve yakında ihtida edeceğini ilk bakışta firâsetiyle tesbit ettiği söylenir (a.g.e. , s. 493).
Müfessirlerin çoğu gibi sûfîler de bir âyette geçen “mütevessimîn” (el-Hicr 15/75) kelimesini firâset sahipleri şeklinde anlamışlar, ayrıca; “Sen onları simalarından tanırsın” (el-Bakara 2/273) ve, “Andolsun ki sen onları -münafıkları- konuşma tarzlarından da tanırsın” (Muhammed 47/30) meâlindeki âyetlerde de firâsetin kastedildiğini söylemişlerdir (Râgıb el-İsfahânî, s. 186). Allah tarafından insana üflenen ruhun (el-Hicr 15/29; es-Secde 32/9; Sâd 38/72) firâsetin kaynağı olduğuna işaret eden sûfîler, Hz. Ömer’in bazı âyetlerin getirdiği hükümleri bu âyetler inmeden evvel bilmesini, Hz. Osman’ın yanına gelen bir kişinin gelmeden önce nâmahreme baktığını anlaması üzerine onun, “Hz. Peygamber vefat ettikten sonra vahiy ile mi karşılaşıyorum!” diye hayret etmesini ve Hz. Osman’ın, “Bu vahiy değil firâsettir” demesini (İbnü’l-Arabî, II, 311) firâsetin mümkün ve meşrû olduğuna delil saymışlardır.
Yine sûfîlere göre nefsin bayağı arzularına karşı koymak, haram ve şüpheli şeylerden kaçınmak, Hz. Peygamber’in sünnetini bir hayat tarzı olarak benimseyip ona göre yaşamak insanın firâset sahibi olmasını sağlar. Dolayısıyla bu tür bir hayat yaşamayanların firâseti makbul sayılmamıştır (Kuşeyrî, s. 483). Yûsuf b. Hüseyin er-Râzî’ye göre firâset gerçek bir olgudur ve mümine ait bir özelliktir. Bununla beraber bir kimsenin, firâsetteki doğruları ne kadar çok ve yanlışları ne kadar az olursa olsun firâset sahibi olduğunu iddia etmeye hakkı yoktur (Serrâc, s. 294). Ebû Hafs en-Nîsâbûrî’ye göre hiç kimse firâset sahibi olduğunu iddia etmemelidir. Zira, “Müminin firâsetinden sakınınız” hadisi başkasının firâsetini dikkate alarak ondan sakınmayı da gerektirir (Kuşeyrî, s. 485).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
et-Taʿrîfât , “firâse” md.
Tehânevî, Keşşâf , “firâse” md.
Buhârî, “Ferâʾiż”, 31.
Müslim, “Raḍâʿ”, 40.
Aristo, es-Siyâse fî tedbîri’r-riyâse: Sırrü’l-esrâr (Abdurrahman Bedevî, el-Uṣûlü’l-Yûnâniyye li’n-naẓariyyâti’s-siyâsiyye fi’l-İslâm içinde), Kahire 1373/1954, s. 65-174; a.e. , Türkçe tercümesi Keşfü’l-estâr ve sırrü’l-esrâr , İÜ Ktp., TY, nr. 1687, 2749.
Kitâbü’l-Ġālib ve’l-maġlûb , Süleymaniye Ktp., Ayasofya, nr. 2432, 2875.
Kindî, Kitâbü’l-Firâse , Bursa Eski Yazma ve Basma Eserler Ktp., Hüseyin Çelebi, nr. 33.
Hakîm et-Tirmizî, Ḫatmü’l-evliyâʾ , s. 356, 392.
Mes‘ûdî, Mürûcü’ẕ-ẕeheb (Meynard) , II, 165-171.
Serrâc, el-Lümaʿ , s. 294, 298.
Kelâbâzî, et-Taʿarruf , s. 151.
İbnü’n-Nedîm, el-Fihrist (Şüveymî) , s. 314.
Sülemî, Ṭabaḳāt , s. 126, 156.
Kuşeyrî, er-Risâle , s. 480-494, 504.
Herevî, Menâzil , s. 31.
a.mlf., Ṭabaḳāt , s. 157, 242, 372, 471, 521.
Râgıb el-İsfahânî, eẕ-Ẕerîʿa ilâ mekârimi’ş-şerîʿa (nşr. Ebü’l-Yezîd el-Acemî), Kahire 1405/1985, s. 186-190.
Attâr, Teẕkiretü’l-evliyâʾ , s. 785.
Baklî, Şerḥ-i Şaṭḥiyyât , s. 207, 326, 634.
Fahreddin er-Râzî, Mefâtîḥu’l-ġayb , XIX, 203.
a.mlf., Kitâbü’l-Firâse (nşr. Yûsuf Murâd), Paris 1939.
İbnü’l-Arabî, el-Fütûḥât , Kahire 1293, II, 31, 311-319.
a.mlf., Tedbîrât-ı İlâhiyye (trc. Ahmed Avni Konuk), İstanbul 1992, s. 215-241.
Necmeddîn-i Dâye, Mirṣâdü’l-ʿibâd (nşr. M. Emîn Kiyâh), Tahran 1365 hş., s. 57.
İbn Ebû Usaybia, ʿUyûnü’l-enbâʾ , Kahire 1299, I, 69.
İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, Medâricü’s-sâlikîn , Kahire 1403/1983, II, 503-516.
İbnü’l-Hatîb, Ravżatü’t-taʿrîf (nşr. Muhammed el-Kettânî), Beyrut 1400/1980, I, 315; II, 479.
İbn Haldûn, Muḳaddime , I, 423.
İbşîhî, el-Müsteṭraf , II, 191-192.
Ankaravî, Minhâcü’l-fukarâ , Bulak 1256, s. 215.
Taşköprizâde, Miftâḥu’s-saʿâde , I, 333-335.
a.mlf., Mevzûâtü’l-ulûm , I, 358.
İbrâhim Hakkı Erzurûmî, Mârifetnâme , İstanbul 1310, s. 210.
Zebîdî, İtḥâfü’s-sâde , VI, 544-545.
Sıddîk Hasan Han, Ebcedü’l-ʿulûm , Dımaşk 1978, II, 379, 385, 396, 436.
Âlûsî, Rûḥu’l-meʿânî , XIV, 74.
Mahmûd Şükrî el-Âlûsî, Bulûġu’l-ereb , Kahire, ts. (Dârü’l-kütübi’l-hadîse), I, 263.
Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam , s. 193, 205.
el-Muʿcemü’ṣ-ṣûfî , s. 880.
Yûsuf Murâd, el-Firâse ʿinde’l-ʿArab ve Kitâbü’l-Firâse li-Faḫriddîn er-Râzî (trc. Murâd Vehbe), Kahire 1982.
Mahmut Kaya, İslâm Kaynakları Işığında Aristoteles ve Felsefesi , İstanbul 1983, s. 294-299.
İhsan Hakkī, ʿİlmü’l-firâse , Beyrut 1403/1983.
İbrâhim Muhammed el-Fahhâm, “el-Firâse ve’l-ḳıyâfe ʿinde’l-ʿArab”, Fayṣal , LXXI, Riyad 1983, s. 119-123.
Abdülkerîm Zehûr Adî, “el-Firâse ʿinde’l-ʿArab”, MMLADm. , LVII/4 (1982), s. 707-728; LVIII/2 (1983), s. 343-363.
D. B. Macdonald, “Firâset”, İA , IV, 640.
T. Fahd, “Firāsa”, EI2 (İng.) , 916-917.
a.mlf., “al-Kaff”, a.e. , IV, 405-406.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1996 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 13. cildinde, 116-117 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
FIKIH. Klasik dönem İslâm kültüründe ayrı bir ilim dalı olarak itibar ve önem kazanan firâsetin zamanla İslâm hukuk literatüründe de yer aldığı ve özellikle yargılama hukukunda bilgi ve ispat aracı olarak kullanılıp kullanılamayacağının tartışıldığı görülür. Yönetici, kanun koyucu ve müctehidin firâsetle davranması gereği de yine literatürde üzerinde durulan bir konudur. Bununla birlikte firâset kavramıyla neyin kastedildiğinin çok defa açık olmadığı, şahıslara veya kullanım alanına göre kapsamının farklılık gösterdiği söylenebilir.
Mâlikî fakihi Ebû Bekir İbnü’l-Arabî, Kur’an’daki (el-Hicr 15/75) “mütevessimîn” kelimesinin bir anlamının da “firâset sahipleri” demek olduğunu, Ömer b. Abdülazîz döneminde kadılık yapan İyâs b. Muâviye’nin birçok davada firâsetiyle hüküm verdiğini, devrindeki Bağdat başkadısının da Dımaşk’ta bulunduğu sırada İyâs b. Muâviye’nin bu metoduna uyarak firâsetle hüküm verdiğini belirttikten sonra hocası Kaffâl eş-Şâşî’nin bu usulü tenkit amacıyla bir risâle kaleme aldığını haber vermektedir. İbnü’l-Arabî de hocasının görüşüne katılarak kazâî hüküm verirken ne gibi yolların takip edileceğinin dinen ve hukuken belli olduğunu, bu hususta kati delillere dayanılması gerektiğini, firâsetin ise böyle olmadığını belirtir. Bu konuda onu takip eden Mâlikî fakihi İbn Ferhûn başta olmak üzere birçok İslâm hukukçusu firâseti, “kişilerin dış görünüşlerinden hareketle huy, kişilik, meslek gibi yönleri hakkında fikir yürütme kabiliyeti” şeklinde anlayarak ona kısmen dar bir anlam vermektedir. Hatta İbn Ferhûn firâseti, kişilerin beden yapıları ve dış görünüşlerinden hareketle neseplerinin bilinmesini konu alan “kıyâfe” metot ve bilgisinden de ayrı tutmaya özen gösterir. İslâm yargılama hukukunda hâkimin ancak objektif, açık ve kesin bilgilere dayanarak hüküm verebileceği göz önüne alınınca bu dar anlamıyla firâsetin yargılamada hükme dayanak teşkil etmesi doğru olmaz. Kazâî hükümde firâseti esas almanın zan ve tahmine dayanarak hüküm verme ve neticede zulüm olduğu yönündeki ifadeler de bu anlayışın sonucudur (Trablusî, s. 168).
Başta Hanbelî fakihi İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye olmak üzere bazı İslâm hukukçuları firâsete daha geniş bir anlam yükleyerek onu, hâkimin ipuçlarını, delil ve maddî bulguları dikkatlice inceleyip olaylar arasında bağ kurması sonucunda gerçeği sezinlemesi şeklinde anlarlar. İbn Kayyim, el-Firâsetü’l-merżıyye fî aḥkâmi’s-siyâseti’ş-şerʿiyye adıyla anılan eṭ-Ṭuruḳu’l-ḥükmiyye fi’s-siyâseti’ş-şerʿiyye isimli eserinin önemli bir bölümünü hâkimin firâsetle hüküm vermesinin gerekliliğine ayırmış, bu görüşünü gerek teori gerekse Hz. Peygamber döneminden itibaren İslâm yargı tarihi içinde yer alan uygulamalardan birçok delil ve örnekle desteklemeye çalışmıştır. İbn Kayyim firâseti, hâkim ve yöneticilerde bulunması icap eden önemli bir vasıf olarak takdim edip firâsetle davranılmazsa birçok hakkın zayi olacağını ve yanlış kararlar verileceğini, buna karşılık hukukî ölçüler terkedilip firâsetle hüküm konusunda aşırı gidilirse haksızlık ve yanlışlığa düşüleceğini ifade ederek orta bir yolun takip edilmesinin gerekli olduğunu vurgular (eṭ-Ṭuruḳu’l-ḥükmiyye , s. 4-5). Eserde verdiği bilgi ve örneklerden İbn Kayyim’in, firâset kavramıyla hâkimin ipucu, karîne ve emâreleri dikkatlice değerlendirerek gerçeğe ulaşması, kişilerin dış görünüş ve davranışından hareketle iç dünyalarını ve gizli hallerini sezinlemesi, psikolojik durumları bilmesi, bağlantıları kurmada kıvrak ve keskin zekâya sahip olması gibi geniş bir anlamı kastettiği anlaşılır. Bu anlamda firâsetin İslâm yargılama hukukunda yararlı ve gerekli bir metot olduğu açıktır. İyâs b. Muâviye’nin firâsetiyle hükmettiği şeklindeki rivayeti veya firâsetle hüküm konusunda literatürde yer alan örnekleri de böyle anlamak gerekir. Ancak firâset terimiyle daha çok bunun dar anlamı kastedildiğinden yargılama hukukunda yukarıdaki anlam ve metodu ifade için genelde “karîne” terimi kullanılır.
İslâm yargılama hukukunda yerleşik teamüle göre hâkim önüne gelen bir davayı karara bağlarken olayların dış görünüşünün, objektif ölçü ve delillerin verdiği bilgileri tatminkâr ve adaleti sağlamada yeterli bulmadığında bilgi ve tecrübe birikimine, zekâ ve sezgi gücüne dayanarak ipuçlarını değerlendirmeli ve onlar vasıtasıyla yeni deliller bulmaya çalışmalıdır. İlk dönemlerden itibaren hâkimin bilgi sahibi olmasının yanı sıra iyi anlama ve kavrama yeteneğinin bulunması hususuna da özen gösterilmesi bu amaca yöneliktir. Bundan dolayı firâset, yargılama hukukunda objektif ve kati delillerle çatışan ve onlara rağmen hükme esas teşkil eden bir delil değil, yeterli delil olmadığında soruşturmayı derinleştirmede ve yönlendirmede hâkim için hareket noktası teşkil edebilecek ve ancak belli durumlarda faydalı olabilecek bir delil veya metot görünümündedir. Firâsetle hüküm konusunda literatürde yer alan örneklerde de onun bu özelliği açıkça görülür. Firâsetin zan ifade etmesine ve karîneye göre daha zayıf bir bilgi aracı olmasına rağmen yargılamada zaruret halinde kullanılabileceğinin ifade edilmesi de onun bu özelliğini vurgulamayı amaçlar.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Ebû Bekir İbnü’l-Arabî, Aḥkâmü’l-Ḳurʾân , III, 1131.
Kurtubî, el-Câmiʿ , X, 44-45.
İbn Kayyim el-Cevziyye, eṭ-Ṭuruḳu’l-ḥükmiyye (nşr. Muhammed Hâmid el-Fıkī), Kahire 1372/1953 ⟶ Beyrut, ts. (Dârü’l-kütübi’l-ilmiyye), s. 3-54.
İbn Ferhûn, Tebṣıratü’l-ḥükkâm (nşr. Tâhâ Abdürraûf Sa‘d), Kahire 1406/1986, II, 135-136.
Trablusî, Muʿînü’l-ḥükkâm , Kahire 1393/1973, s. 168.
Âlûsî, Rûḥu’l-meʿânî , XIV, 74.
M. Mustafa ez-Zühaylî, Vesâʾilü’l-is̱bât fi’ş-şerîʿati’l-İslâmiyye , Dımaşk 1982, s. 553-557.
Ahmed Fethî Behnesî, Naẓariyyetü’l-is̱bât fi’l-fıḳhi’l-cinâʾiyyi’l-İslâmî , Beyrut 1403/1983, s. 193.
a.mlf., el-Mevsûʿatü’l-cinâʾiyye fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî , Beyrut 1991, IV, 101-107.
Ahmed İbrâhim Bek, Ṭuruḳu’l-is̱bâti’ş-şerʿiyye (nşr. Vâsıl Alâeddin Ahmed İbrâhim), Kahire 1405/1985, s. 451.
Abdülkerîm Zehûr Adî, “el-Firâse ʿinde’l-ʿArab”, MMLADm. , LVII/4 (1982), s. 707-728; LVIII/2 (1983), s. 161-193, 343-363, 570-631.
Avâd Abdullah Ebû Bekir, “Niẓâmü’l-is̱bât fi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî”, Mecelletü’l-Câmiʿati’l-İslâmiyye , sy. 58, Medine 1403, s. 149.
Mv.Fİ , II, 190.
Mv.F , I, 247.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1996 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 13. cildinde, 117-118 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.