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FÜRÛ Skip to content İslâm hukukunun amelî-tatbikî bölümünü ve miras hukukunda alt soy hısımları ifade eden fıkıh terimi.
Fürû kelimesi, sözlükte “bir şeyin üst tarafı; dal, kol, şube” anlamına gelen fer‘ in çoğuludur. Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de tekil olarak (İbrâhîm 14/24), bazı hadislerde de çoğul olarak (el-Muvaṭṭaʾ , “Ramażân”, 4; Müsned , V, 53; Müslim, “Ṣalât”, 26; Ebû Dâvûd, “Ṣalât”, 116) bu anlamda kullanılır. Dinî ilimlerde terminolojinin ve literatürün oluşumuyla birlikte fer‘ kelimesi fıkıh usulünde, hükmü nasla belirlenmemiş olup asla kıyas edilen meseleyi, fürû ise fıkıh ilminin nazarî kısmı (usul) dışında kalan ikinci ana bölümünü veya miras hukukunda alt soy hısımlarını ifade eden bir terim olarak kullanılmaya başlanmıştır.
Fıkıh usulünde makīs , müşebbeh adlarıyla da anılan fer‘, kıyasın dört rüknünden biri olup hükmü hakkında nas bulunmayan ve asla kıyas edilip onun hükmünü alan mesele olarak tanımlanır. Usulcüler, kıyasta bir meselenin asla nisbetle fer‘ olarak nitelendirilebilmesi için aslın hükmünün illetinin fer‘de de bulunması ve bu mesele hakkında nas veya icmâda bir hükmün mevcut olmaması şartlarını ararlar. Meselâ haramlığı nasla sabit olan şaraba nisbetle diğer içki maddeleri, cuma ezanı vaktinde yapılması yasaklanan alışverişe nisbetle diğer meşgul edici işler birer fer‘ durumundadır (ayrıca bk. KIYAS ).
Fıkıh literatüründe, usuldeki bu asıl-fer‘ ayırımıyla bağlantılı, fakat yine de kısmen farklı olan ikinci bir asıl-fer‘ ayırımı yapılır. Doktrinde ağırlık kazanmış ve fakihler tarafından genel kabul görmüş usul kuralları ve küllî kaideler asıl, onların uzantısı veya uygulaması sayılan cüz’î meseleler ve hükümler ise fer‘ olarak adlandırılır. Fıkhın ağırlıklı olarak meseleci bir metotla geliştiği, usul kurallarının ve küllî kaidelerin bu gelişim süreci içinde oluştuğu ve tedvin edildiği dikkate alınırsa literatürdeki bu asıl-fer‘ ayırımı, mezheplerin ilk dönem fakihlerince meseleci bir metotla ele alınan ve hükmü açıklanan münferit cüz’î meseleleri sonraki dönem fakihlerinin ortak bir açıklamaya kavuşturmaya ve genel bir prensibe bağlamaya gayret etmiş olmasının tabii sonucu olarak görülebilir. Bundan dolayı Zencânî’nin Taḫrîcü’l-fürûʿ ʿale’l-uṣûl , İsnevî’nin et-Temhîd , Süyûtî ve İbn Nüceym’in el-Eşbâh ve’n-neẓâʾir adlı eserlerinde olduğu gibi, bir grup usul ve kavâid literatüründe önce prensip ve küllî kaidenin zikredilip sonra da bunlardan çıkan veya bunlara dayanan çeşitli fer‘î mesele ve hükümlerin sıralanmış olması böyle bir anlam taşır.
II. (VIII.) yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren ayrı bir disiplin olarak gelişmeye başlayan fıkıh ilminin daha sonraki dönemde usul-fürû şeklinde ikiye ayrılması, usûl-i fıkhın, müctehidin ayrıntılı delillerden şer‘î-amelî hükümleri çıkarabilmesine yarayan metot ve kurallar bütünü, fürûun da bu metotla elde edilen şer‘î-amelî hükümler bütünü olarak anlaşılması, elbetteki yukarıda sözü edilen asıl-fer‘ ayırımıyla da yakından ilgilidir. Bu sebeple fürû adlandırmasını, fıkıh ilminin konusu itibariyle akaid ilmine, amelî hükümlerin de iman esaslarına göre fer‘î ve ikincil bir konumda olmasıyla değil (Şehristânî, I, 41-42; Bahrülulûm el-Leknevî, I, 10), şer‘î-amelî hükümlerin usul kaidelerine göre cüz’î ve fer‘î bir mahiyet arzetmesiyle açıklanması (Şehâbeddin ez-Zencânî, s. 34) daha yerindedir. Bundan dolayı, kesin bir tarih vermek güç olmakla birlikte fürû adlandırmasının usul teriminin ve literatürünün oluşması sürecinde, fıkıh ilminin usûl-i fıkhın karşıtı olan diğer yarısını ifade eden bir terim olarak ortaya çıktığı ve kullanılmaya başlandığı, neticede fıkıh ilminin bu usul-fürû ikili ayırımı içinde gelişim seyri gösterip tedvin edildiği söylenebilir. Bu adlandırmada fürû teriminin tercih edilmiş olması, münferit mesele ve olaylara ait şer‘î-amelî hükümlerin usul kurallarına ve genel hukuk prensiplerine göre cüz’î ve fer‘î bir konumda bulunması ve ilk dönemden itibaren bu alanda tedvin edilen eserlerin, bu tür fer‘î mesele ve hükümlerin sistematik bir tarzda toplanması suretiyle meydana getirilmiş olmasıyla açıklanabilir.
İman ve akaid konularının fıkhın genel kapsamından çıkarılıp ilmü’t-tevhîd, usûlü’d-dîn gibi adlarla anılan ayrı bir disipline konu teşkil etmesi ve fıkhın sadece amelî yönden kişinin hak ve yükümlülüklerini bilmesi olarak tanımlanmasından sonra hukuktan ahlâka, ferdî hayattan sosyal hayata ve devletler arası ilişkilere, ekonomiden siyasete kadar fıkhın yine geniş bir kapsamının bulunduğu, bu yüzden de ilk tedvin edilen fürû-i fıkıh kitaplarından bütün bu konuların belli bir sıra ve sistem içinde o devrin ihtiyaç, bilgi birikimi ve sosyokültürel şartlarıyla da bağlantılı olarak ele alındığı, çeşitli meselelerin dinî-hukukî hükmünün ana hatlarıyla veya ayrıntılı olarak açıklanmaya çalışıldığı görülür. Usûl-i fıkıh eserlerine göre daha erken dönemde tedvin edilen fürû eserlerinde öncelikli olarak tahâret ve ibadet konularının, daha sonra da evlenme, alışveriş gibi hem günlük ferdî hayatı hem de helâl ve haramları yakından ilgilendiren konuların yer alması belli bir ihtiyacın sonucudur. Nitekim Zeyd b. Ali’nin el-Mecmûʿ u, Muhammed b. Hasan eş-Şeybânî’nin el-Aṣl , el-Câmiʿu’ṣ-ṣaġīr , el-Câmiʿu’l-kebîr , İmam Şâfiî’nin el-Üm adlı kitapları da dahil ilk dönemden itibaren yazılan hemen hemen bütün fürû eserleri, ayrıntıda bazı takdim ve tehirler olsa da tahâret ve namaz konusuyla başlamakta, oruç, zekât, hac, kurban, nezir, kefâret gibi diğer ibadetlerden sonra ya nikâh ya da alışveriş konusuyla devam etmekte, daha sonra da ferdî ve içtimaî hayata ilişkin dinî-hukukî konular ayrı başlıklar altında ele alınmakta ve vasiyet, ferâiz gibi konularla sona ermektedir. Bu sistem daha sonra yazılan fürûa dair eserlerde de ana hatlarıyla korunmuş ve klasik dönem genel fürû kitaplarının çatısı bu şekilde oluşmuştur. Bunlar arasında Kâsânî’nin Bedâʾiʿu’ṣ-ṣanâʾiʿ inde olduğu gibi dinî-hukukî hükümlerin delil ve gerekçelerini ve dayandığı hukukî prensipleri ele alan doktriner tarzda yazılmış olanları bulunduğu gibi İbn Kudâme’nin el-Muġnî ’si, İbn Rüşd’ün Bidâyetü’l-müctehid ’i gibi mezhepler arası karşılaştırmalı olarak veya Mevsılî’nin el-İḫtiyâr ’ı ve İbn Âbidîn’in Reddü’l-muḥtâr ’ı gibi mezhep içi görüşleri tercih ve tahlil amacıyla yazılmış olanları, Tahâvî ve Kudûrî’nin el-Muḫtaṣar adlı eseriyle İbrâhim el-Halebî’nin Mülteḳa’l-ebḥur ’u gibi uygulayıcılar için el kitabı ve ilmihal mahiyetinde olanları da vardır.
Klasik dönem fürû-i fıkıh eserlerinde genelde yirmi beş-otuz civarında ana bölüm bulunmakla birlikte öteden beri fürû-i fıkhın konularının ibâdât, muâmelât ve ukūbât şeklinde üç gruptan oluştuğu söylenegelir. Ancak genel fürû eserlerinde idare, anayasa, malî hukuk, devletler arası hukuk, yargılama, ahvâl-i şahsiyye, hatta âdâb-ı muaşeret ve ahlâk konularının da yer aldığı düşünülürse bu üçlü taksimin muhtevayı tam yansıttığı söylenemez. Ayrıca genel fürû-i fıkıh eserlerinde yer alan çeşitli konuları, meselâ günümüzde hukuk biliminin alt dalları olan idare, anayasa, vergi, ceza, devletler, muhakeme hukuku gibi fıkhın çeşitli konularını müstakil olarak ayrıntılı şekilde ele alan harâc, emvâl, ahkâmü’s-sultâniyye, siyâsetü’ş-şer‘iyye, siyer, edebü’l-kādî türü eserlerin fürû eserlerinin özel bir kısmı olarak nitelendirilmesi mümkündür. Öte yandan, yukarıda belirtilen klasik çatıya göre genel fürû-i fıkıh eserlerinin telifinin XIX. yüzyıldan itibaren hemen hemen terkedildiği, bunun yerine Batı hukuk doktrininin ve kanunlaştırmaların da etkisiyle ibadetler, aile, miras, borçlar, ceza, yargılama, maliye-idare, anayasa, devletler hukuku gibi modern hukuk biliminin alt dallarında nazariye ve genel hükümlere de yer veren İslâm hukuku eserlerinin telif edilmeye başlandığı görülmektedir (bk. FIKIH ).
Fürû kelimesi İslâm hukuk literatüründe “kişinin, kız veya erkek çocukları, torunları ve onların çocukları şeklinde devam eden nesli” anlamında da kullanılır. Bu bağlamda usul kelimesi kişinin anne, baba ve onların anne ve babası şeklinde yukarıya doğru devam eden ve kendisine kan bağıyla bağlı üst soy hısımlarını, fürû ise aynı şekilde aşağıya doğru devam eden alt soy hısımlarını ifade eder. Fürû hısımlığı, özellikle aile ve miras hukukunda birçok özel hükme konu olmuştur. Bu hısımlık devamlı evlenme engeli teşkil ettiği gibi nafaka mükellefiyeti, nesep, velâyet, mirasçılık gibi özel hukuk ve hatta ceza hukuku alanlarında bazı hak ve sorumlulukların, birtakım öncelik veya ayrıcalıkların da temel sebebini teşkil eder. Meselâ evlendirmede velâyette fürû hısımlarının mı usul hısımlarının mı öncelik taşıdığı tartışmalı iken miras hukukunda fürû, binefsihî asabe olanlar arasında birinci sırayı teşkil eder (bk. ASABE ).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Lisânü’l-ʿArab , “frʿ” md.
et-Taʿrîfât , “ferʿ” md.
Tehânevî, Keşşâf , II, 1128.
el-Muvaṭṭaʾ , “Ramażân”, 4.
Müsned , V, 53.
Müslim, “Ṣalât”, 26.
Ebû Dâvûd, “Ṣalât”, 116.
Şehristânî, el-Milel (Vekîl) , I, 41-42.
İbn Rüşd, Bidâyetü’l-müctehid , II, 10-11.
İbnü’l-Esîr, en-Nihâye , III, 437.
Şehâbeddin ez-Zencânî, Taḫrîcü’l-fürûʿ ʿale’l-uṣûl (nşr. M. Edîb Sâlih), Beyrut 1402/1982, s. 34-35.
Karâfî, el-Furûḳ , Kahire 1347 → Beyrut, ts. (Âlemü’l-kütüb), I, 2-4.
İsnevî, et-Temhîd , tür.yer.
Bahrülulûm el-Leknevî, Fevâtiḥu’r-raḥamût , I, 10.
Ali Haydar, Dürerü’l-hükkâm , I, 14-26.
Halil Cin – Ahmet Akgündüz, Türk Hukuk Tarihi , Konya 1988, I, 73 vd.
Zekiyyüddin Şa‘bân, İslâm Hukuk İlminin Esasları (trc. İbrahim Kâfi Dönmez), Ankara 1990, s. 121, 126-129.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1996 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 13. cildinde, 249-250 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.