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GALAT Skip to content Kasıt unsuru olmaksızın maksatla irade beyanı arasında ortaya çıkan uyuşmazlık anlamında İslâm hukuku terimi.
Sözlükte “yanılmak; yanılgı, yanlışlık” gibi anlamlara gelen galat kelimesi klasik İslâm hukuku literatüründe teknik anlamda terimleşmiş olmayıp genelde “hata” ve “cehalet” mânalarında kullanılır (İbn Hazm, IX, 455; Mergīnânî, VIII, 20; İbn Kudâme, s. 232; Nevevî, I, 335; Cündî, II, 49). Hatta galat kelimesinin, Batı hukuku sistematiğinin etkisiyle çağdaş İslâm hukukçuları tarafından Latince kökenli “error”un karşılığı olarak kullanılmaya başlandığı ve modern dönemde terim anlamı kazandığı da söylenebilir.
Çağdaş kullanımda galat teriminin muhtevasını oluşturan konular İslâm hukukunda dağınık biçimde de olsa tanınmakta ve “vasıf muhayyerliği, ayıp muhayyerliği, görme muhayyerliği” gibi değişik başlıklar altında incelenmektedir. Çağdaş İslâm hukukçularının yaptığı şey, büyük ölçüde, fıkıh kitaplarının değişik bahislerinde dağınık olarak ele alınan konulan bir araya toplayıp sistematik biçimde sunmaktan ibaret olmuştur. Bununla birlikte galat, İslâm hukuku literatüründe yine birer irade kusuru sayılan ikrah ve tedlîs kavramlarının gördüğü ilgiyi görmemiştir. Son ikisi “hıyârü’t-tedlîs” ve “bâbü’l-ikrâh” gibi müstakil konu başlıkları altında ele alınıp incelendiği halde galatın ancak bazı çağdaş çalışmalarda, özellikle de Senhûrî’nin araştırmalarında müstakil olarak ele alınmaya başlandığı görülür (Meṣâdirü’l-ḥaḳ , II, 104-153).
İslâm hukukunda bütün sözlü tasarrufların temeli rızâdır. Bundan dolayı tasarrufun, akdi yapanlarca akdin yapılması sırasında gerçeğe uygun olarak bilinen bir konu üzerinde cereyan etmesi gerekir. Aksi takdirde vehim söz konusu olur ve rızâ kusurlu kabul edilir. Çünkü bu durumda, akdi yapan kişinin akdi yaptığı sırada işin gerçeğini bilmiş olması halinde bu akdi yapmaya yönelmeyeceği düşünülür. Ancak literatürde irade ayıpları veya rızâyı bozan sebepler olarak adlandırılan galat, tedlîs (veya tağrîr) ve ikrahın rızâya etkileri aynı derecede değildir. Bunlardan ilk ikisinin rızâyı bütünüyle ortadan kaldırmayıp sadece sakatladığı, ikrahın ise cumhura göre genelde, Hanefîler’e göre bazı durumlarda rızâya aykırı olup rızâyı kaldırdığı, fakat her üç durumun da ehliyete hiçbir etkisinin bulunmadığı görüşü hâkimdir.
İrade veya rızâ ayıplarından galat (Fr. erreur) Türk hukuk dilinde “hata”, tedlîs de (Fr. dol) “hile” kavramlarıyla karşılanmış olup ikrah (Fr. violence) her iki dilde de aynı anlamı taşır.
Klasik fıkıh literatüründe terimleşmiş olmadığı için galatın terim olarak tanımı da yapılmamıştır. Fransız hukukçusu Sailles’in, “gerçek (iç) iradenin beyan edilen (dış) iradeye uymaması” olarak tanımladığı “erreur” kelimesinin karşılığında kullanılan galat terimini açıklamak için çağdaş İslâm hukukçuları öz itibariyle birbirine çok yakın tanımlar yapmışlardır. Bu terimi Zerkā, “akdi yapan kişiye olmayanı varmış gibi tasavvur ettiren ve onu eğer bu tasavvur olmasaydı yapmayacak olduğu akdi yapmaya sevkeden tevehhüm”; Medkûr, “akdi yapan kişinin akdin konusunu olduğundan başka bir vasıf veya heyet üzere tasavvur etmesi”; Dîrînî de “akdi yapanın zihninde tasarrufun inşası sırasında, rızâsının ilişkin bulunduğu esaslı bir husus hakkında kendisini akid ilişkisine girmeye sevkeden ve eğer işin gerçeğini o esnada bilmiş olsaydı akdi yapmaya girişmeyecek olduğu gerçeğe uygun düşmeyen tasavvur” olarak tanımlamışlardır. Bu tanımların hepsi de galatın tıpkı hılâbe, tedlîs ve tağrîr gibi vehmî bir esasa dayandığı noktasında birleşmektedir. Ancak galattaki vehim kendiliğinden olup bizzat akdi yapandan kaynaklandığı halde diğerlerindeki vehmin kaynağı karşı taraf, bazı durumlarda da üçüncü şahıstır.
İrade aybı olan yani rızâyı sakatlayan galat iradenin oluşumu sırasındaki galattır. Bunun yanında iradeye hiçbir etkisi bulunmayan galat türleri de vardır. Meselâ iradenin naklinde ve tefsirinde galat, irade beyanında bulunan kişi açısından değil bu iradenin yöneldiği kişi açısından söz konusudur ve bu durumda iki iradenin uyuşmazlığından söz edilir. Aynı şekilde toplama, çıkarmada hesap hatası, kalem yanlışları gibi maddî galatın da iradeye bir etkisi yoktur.
Galat, yanlış tasavvur (tevehhüm) temeli üzerine kurulu kendiliğinden doğan psikolojik bir durum olduğu için İslâm hukukunda hâkim olan objektif karakterle bir arada bulunması güçtür. Diğer bir ifadeyle galat teorisi, İslâm hukukunda riayeti gerekli iki zıt ilkeyle karşılaşır. Bunlardan birincisi, akid yapan kimsenin iradesinin saygınlığı ve akde ilişkin rızâsının tam olarak korunması prensibidir. Buna göre akdi yapanın gerçek iradesinin dikkate alınması gerekir. Akdi yapan kişi yanlış beyanda bulunsa dış iradesi iç iradesine aykırı olmuş olur ve bu durumda iradesi sağlıksız kabul edilir. Bu kişiye, dış iradesinin yöneldiği şeyi iptal hakkı verilmek suretiyle hareket rahatlığı sağlanmalıdır. İkincisi de hukukî ilişkilerde güven ve istikrar ortamının kurulması ve korunması prensibidir. Bu bir yönüyle hukuk düzeninin ve kamu yararının tabii gereğidir. Hukukî muamelelerde istikrar, insanların birbirleriyle rızâî akid ilişkileri şeklinde gerçekleştirdikleri iradî tasarruflarının belli şekil şartlarının ve sabit sonuçlarının olması, akdi yapan kişinin de bunlardan kaçınma hususunda kusurlu bulunmadığı sürece yaptığı akdin bilmediği sebepler yüzünden ortadan kaldırılmasıyla karşı karşıya kalmaması demektir. Böylece taraflar işlerini, önceden bildikleri ve devamlılığına güvendikleri sonuçlar üzerine bina edebilme imkânı bulurlar. Bunu sağlayabilmek için de objektif ölçüleri korumak, dış iradeye güvenmek ve taraflardan birinin hatasının bu tasarrufun kuvvetini ve sonuçlarını doğrudan etkilemesine imkân vermemek gerekir.
İslâm hukukunda prensip olarak, aralarında çatışma olması durumunda dış irade iç iradeye tercih edilir ve akdin gerçekleşmesinde, karşı taraf nezdinde kendiliğinden ortaya çıkan hakikate aykırı bir vehim olması itibariyle galata önem verilmez. Çünkü İslâm hukukçuları bu hususta akdi yapan tarafların gerçek iradelerinin saygınlığını düşündükleri kadar teamülün istikrarını ve düzenliliğini de düşünmüşlerdir. İslâm hukukunun bu objektif karakteri ve büyük ölçüde dış iradeyi dikkate alması sebebiyledir ki sübjektif karakterli galat konusu İslâm hukukunda bir teori olarak bir yerde ve topluca ele alınmamış, dağınık bir tarzda ilgili olduğu konular arasına serpiştirilmiştir. Meselâ galatla ilgili doktriner görüşler ve İslâm hukukçularının hata teorisi vasıf, ayıp ve görme muhayyerliği konularını sıkı bir şekilde birbirine bağlamaktadır. Bununla birlikte İslâm hukukunda akdin sübjektif unsurları, tarafların iç iradesi, niyet ve amacı da tamamıyla ihmal edilmemiş, belli bir ölçüye kadar bunlar da gözetilmeye ve korunmaya çalışılmıştır. Bu sebeple İslâm hukukunda mutedil bir yol takip edilmiş, hukukî ilişkilerde güven ve istikrarın kaybolmasından endişe edildiği durumlarda bunu sağlamak amacıyla şeklî ve objektif ölçüler esas alınıp gerçek iradeye ve galatın varlığına itibar edilmemiş; buna karşılık gerçek irade dikkate alındığında bu istikrarın zarar görmeyeceğine kanaat getirildiği durumlarda ise gerçek iradeye itibar edilmiştir. Bu açıdan genel hatlarıyla belirtilecek olursa, akdi yapan tarafın gerçek iradesini belirtmemesi durumunda İslâm hukukçuları bu iradeyi ve bunu şaibelendiren galatı dikkate almazlar. Çünkü bu galat diğer tarafa gizli kalmıştır ve anlama imkânı da yoktur. Buna karşılık akdi yapan kişinin gerçek iradesini açıklaması veya bu iradenin herhangi bir yolla anlaşılabildiği durumlarda İslâm hukukçuları bu iradeye ve ona bulaşan galata itibar ederler. Çünkü bu irade karşı tarafça bilinebilir hale gelmiştir veya karşı tarafın bunu anlaması mümkündür. Bu takdirde karşı taraf hatayı ya bilmektedir veya kolayca bilebilecek durumdadır. Yine İslâm hukukunda, karşı taraf için açığa çıkmış olsun veya olmasın bazı durumlarda gerçek iradeye itibar edilir ve onu sakatlayan galat dikkate alınır. Meselâ görmediği bir şeyi satın alan kişi için görme muhayyerliği tanınması bu anlayışın sonucudur.
Galatın varlığından bahsedebilmek için akid veya hukukî işlemin iki tarafının bulunması ve galatın akdin yapıldığı anda ve o esnada mevcut olan bir akid konusu üzerinde gerçekleşmesi gerekir. Galatın dikkate alınabilmesinin temel şartı galatın açık ve bilinebilir derecede olmasıdır. Diğer bir ifadeyle akdi yapan kişi akdin inşası sırasında gerçek iradesine ya irade beyanıyla açıklık getirmiş olmalı ya da akidleşme durumundaki objektif karineler bunu göstermelidir. Aksi takdirde galat sebebiyle akdin feshi karşı taraf için beklenmedik bir zarar ve mağduriyete yol açabilir. Buna karşılık etkisine mâruz kalınan ve rızânın kusurlanmasına yol açan vehim veya galat, karşı tarafın anlayabileceği şekilde irade beyanında açıklanmadığı veya karineler göstermediği, yalnız niyet olarak akdi yapanın içinde kaldığı sürece hukuken akde hiçbir tesiri olmaz. Öyle anlaşılıyor ki bu şart hem teamülün istikrarını sağlama alma, hem de iyi niyetli karşı tarafı hiç haberdar olmadığı bir sebepten dolayı akdin feshedilmesiyle uğrayacağı zarardan koruma amacına yöneliktir. Meselâ bir şahsın, ipek zannettiği bir kumaşı bu zannını dile getirmeden satın alması ve daha sonra bunun ipek olmadığının ortaya çıkması durumunda hataya düşen kişinin galat iddiasında bulunma hakkı yoktur. Ancak irade beyanında bulunurken, “Bu ipek kumaşı satın alıyorum” diye kasdına bir açıklık getirmişse kumaşın ipek çıkmaması halinde galat iddiasında bulunabilir. Rızânın galat sebebiyle kusurlandığının karineler yoluyla anlaşılması da şöyle örneklendirilebilir: Bir kimse, antika eşyaların satıldığı bir mağazadan antika olduğunu zannettiği bir parça satın alır da daha sonra bu parçanın antika olmadığı ortaya çıkarsa, irade beyanı ile kasdına açıklık getirmiş olmasa bile, bu parçayı antika eşya satıcısından satın almış olması karînesiyle galat iddiasında bulunabilir. Çünkü teamüle hâkim olması öngörülen iyi niyet ve dürüstlük kuralı, satıcının müşteriyi bu parçanın antika olmadığı konusunda uyarmasını gerektirir.
Galat Türleri. Batı hukukunda galat Roma hukukundan itibaren ortaya çıkıp gittikçe gelişerek irade ayıpları konusunda müstakil bir teori haline gelmiş ve bazı farklılıklarla kanunlarda hukukî tasarrufun iptal sebebi olarak yer almıştır. İslâm hukukunda ise galat teorisi çağdaş yazarların araştırmalarında ortaya konulmuştur. Bunlar, İslâm hukukunun klasik literatüründe daha çok meseleci (kazüistik) bir üslûpla ele alınan konu ve örneklerden hareketle doktriner bir galat teorisi geliştirmeye çalışmışlar, bunu da daha çok İslâm hukukundaki vasıf, görme ve ayıp muhayyerliği konularıyla irtibatlandırarak ortaya koymuşlardır. Bir kısım yazarlar da galat teorisini “hata” başlığı altında ve fıkıh usulündeki hata kavramıyla bağlantılı olarak ele almıştır.
Çağdaş İslâm hukuk literatüründe galatın şu türlerinden bahsedilmektedir: 1. Şeyde Hata . Şeyde galat, akdin tamamlanmasından sonra akdin gerçekleşen konusunun, üzerine akid yapılan konudan zat ve vasıf bakımından farklı olduğunun ortaya çıkması olup esaslı hata kabul edilir. Akdin konusunun zatındaki galat iki şekilde gerçekleşir. a) Akid konusu olan şeyin akid yapılırken söylenenden farklı cinsten çıkması. Meselâ elmas olması şartıyla alınan bir yüzüğün cam veya kristal olduğunun ortaya çıkması, satın alınan hububatın buğday yerine arpa çıkması böyledir. Akid konusunun cinsinde vâki olan bu galat esaslı hata kabul edilir. b) Akid konusu olan şeyin cinsinin aynı, fakat akdi yapanın kasdıyla akid konusu olan şeyin hakikati arasında menfaat açısından fahiş bir farklılığın bulunması durumu. Meselâ el dokuması diye satılan bir halının makine halısı olduğunun ortaya çıkması veya biber tohumu diye satılan şeyin çiçek tohumu çıkması böyledir. Buradaki galat da netice itibariyle akdin konusuyla ilgilidir.
Bu iki tür galat da akid konusunun zatı hakkındadır ve cins farklılığı akdin konusunu ma‘dûm (yok) hale getirmiştir. Menfaat ve değer yönünden fahiş bir farklılığa yol açan vasıftaki galat da fakihlerce cinste galat olarak görülmüş ve aynı hükme bağlanmıştır. Bu tür galatın akde etkisi konusunda İslâm hukukçuları farklı görüşler ileri sürmüşlerdir. Çoğunluğa göre (Hanefîler’in ekserisi, Mâlikîler, Hanbelîler, Zâhirîler ve bir görüşte Şâfiîler) bu durumda akid, olmayan bir konu (ma‘dûm) üzerine yapıldığından bâtıldır. Buna karşı Kerhî gibi bazı fakihler, satıcının başka bir şeye işaretle müsemmâyı sattığını, bunun da bir bakıma başka bir şeyi teslim etmek şartıyla bir şeyi satmaya benzediği gerekçesiyle bu durumda akdin bâtıl değil fâsid olacağını, bazı fakihler de (İmâmiyye ekolü, Şâfiî ve Mâlikî ekollerinde bir görüş) akdin sahih kabul edileceğini, fakat özel vasfın bulunmayışı sebebiyle muhayyerlik hakkı tanınacağını söylemişlerdir. Mecelle ’de, “Cinsi beyan olunarak satılan şey başka cinsten çıksa bey‘ bâtıl olur. Meselâ bayi‘ sırçayı elmas diye satsa bâtıldır” (md. 208) denilerek çoğunluğun görüşü tercih edilmiştir.
Akdin konusunda meydana gelen galat İslâm hukukunda Batı hukukundakinden daha geniş kapsamlıdır. Cins bir olsa bile menfaat noktasında aralarında fahiş fark varsa İslâm hukukunda bu da esaslı hata olur. Batı hukukunda ise menfaat açısından fahiş fark olabilir, hatta cins bile değişebilir, bununla birlikte hata yine de akdin kurulmasına engel olmaz, sadece akdi iptal edilebilir hale getirir. Öte yandan İslâm hukukunda, bu konuda mantıkçıların cins ve tür ayırımıyla bağlı kalınmayıp asıl maddeleri aynı olmakla birlikte değerleri ve kullanma maksatları çok farklı olan iki şey iki ayrı cins olarak kabul edilmiş, bunun sonucunda akid konusunun ma‘dûm olduğu ve akdin oluşmadığı görüşü ağırlık kazanmıştır.
Akid konusunun vasfındaki galata gelince bu konu literatürde, akid konusu malda kişiyi akid yapmaya yönelten asıl özelliğin bulunmaması anlamında “mergub vasfın fevâtı” olarak adlandırılır. Bu galat, söylenenle akdin konusunun aynı cinsten olup ikisi arasında menfaat ve değer açısından fahiş olmayan, fakat ilgili şahıs için önemli sayılabilecek ve arzulanan (mergub) bir vasfın yokluğuna yol açan bir farklılığın bulunması şeklinde açıklanabilir. Bu durumda akid nâfiz ve sahih olarak gerçekleşse bile vasıf muhayyerliği bulunduğu için akid gayri lâzım olur. Meselâ koç yerine koyun, bir kitap yerine başka bir kitap çıksa bu durumlarda akid oluşur. Çünkü mebî‘deki hata cinsi değiştirmediği gibi müşterinin talep ettiğiyle mebîin hakikati arasında fahiş bir fark da yoktur. Ancak mergub bir vasıf bulunmadığı için müşteri muhayyerdir. Bu husus Mecelle ’de, “Bâyiin bir vasf-ı mergūb ile muttasıf olmak üzere satmış olduğu mal ol vasıftan ârî çıksa müşteri muhayyerdir; dilerse bey‘i fesheder ve dilerse mecmû-i semen-i müsemmâ ile mebîi kabul eder. Buna ‘hıyâr-ı vasf’ denir. Meselâ sağılır diye satılmış olan bir ineğin sütten kesilmiş olduğu zâhir olsa müşteri muhayyer olur. Ve keza gece vakti kırmızı yakuttur diye satılan taş sarı yakut çıksa müşteri muhayyerdir” (md. 310) şeklinde ifade edilmiştir.
İslâm hukukundaki mergub vasfın fevâtı kavramı Batı hukukunda esaslı hata kavramı içinde ele alınmakta olup bu konuda iki hukuk sistemi benzer yaklaşımlara sahiptir. Ancak galatın birinci türü olan şeyde hata İslâm hukukunda akde daha çok etkilidir. Cins ihtilâfı veya cins bir olmakla birlikte menfaat açısından aşırı farklılık, Batı hukukunda esaslı hata olmaktan ve akdi iptal edilebilir kılmaktan ileri gitmediği halde İslâm hukukunda büyük çoğunluğa göre akdi bâtıl, bazı fakihlere göre ise fâsid kılmaktadır.
2. Şahısta Hata. Akdi yapan taraflardan biri karşı tarafın kimliğinde veya temel bazı özelliklerinde yanılabilir. Meselâ onu falanca şahıs zanneder, fakat başkası olduğu ortaya çıkar veya onunla kendisi arasında akrabalık olduğunu zanneder, halbuki gerçek böyle olmayabilir. Malî akidlerde taraf teşkil eden şahıslar genellikle birinci derecede önemli olmadığından bu tür akidlerde şahısta hata kural olarak akdin feshi için haklı bir sebep teşkil etmez. Şahısta hatanın önemi, karşı tarafın şahsının veya temel bir vasfının akdin yapılması hususunda özellikle dikkate alındığı durumlarda ortaya çıkar ve ilgili tarafa bu sebeple akdi feshetme hakkı verir. Bu konuda İslâm ve Batı hukukları ana hatlarıyla benzer hükümler taşırlar. Bu tür galat evlilik, hibe, vekâlet, vasiyet, şüf‘a, icâre (özellikle icâre-i âdemî) gibi akidlerde önemli olmaktadır. Meselâ vekâlet akdinde vekilin şahsı kadar ehliyeti, süt anneyle yapılan hizmet (icâre) akdinde süt annenin vasıfları da önem taşıdığından bunlarda meydana gelen hata esaslı vasıfta hata sayılır ve ayrıntıdaki görüş farklılıkları bir yana ilgili tarafa akdi fesih (muhayyerlik) hakkı verilir.
3. Kıymette Hata. “İvazda hata” da denilen bu tür hatada, ivazlı akidlerde bedellerden birinin değerinin diğerine nisbetle mâkul ve mûtat olmayan ölçüde fazla olması halinde söz konusudur. Ancak akid konusu mal veya hizmetin değerini takdirde meydana gelen hatanın hangi tür akidlerde ve hangi şartlarda ilgili şahsa, yani bu hataya düşen kimseye akdi fesih hakkı vereceği hususu öteden beri İslâm hukukçuları arasında tartışmalıdır. Bu konuda meydana gelen galatın genellikle gabn-i fâhiş ölçüsünde olması, yani fazla veya eksik ödemenin ilgili tarafın rızâsını sakatlayacak ölçüde önemli ve ciddi boyutta olması şartı aranır (bk. GABN ).
4. Kanunda / Şer‘î Hükümde Hata. İslâm hukukçuları, kusurlu olunması halinde şer‘î hükmü bilmemenin mazeret teşkil etmeyeceğini belirtmişlerdir. Bununla birlikte bazı sınırlı durumlarda şer‘î hükmün bilinmemesi bir mazeret kabul edilmiştir (Karâfî, II, 150; İbn Nüceym, s. 167-168; ayrıca bk. CEHÂLET ).
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M. Mustafa Şelebî, el-Medḫal fi’t-taʿrîf bi’l-fıḳhi’l-İslâmî , Beyrut 1403/1983, s. 583-587.
Subhî Mahmesânî, en-Naẓariyyetü’l-ʿâmme li’l-mûcebât ve’l-ʿuḳūd , Beyrut 1983, II, 420-424.
Abdülfettâh Abdülbâkī, Naẓariyyetü’l-ʿuḳūd , Kahire 1984, s. 296-331.
Muhammed Bahrülulûm, ʿUyûbü’l-irâde fi’ş-şerîʿati’l-İslâmiyye , Beyrut 1984, s. 641-698.
Ali Muhyiddin el-Karadâğî, Mebdeʾü’r-rıżâ fi’l-ʿuḳūd , Beyrut 1406/1985, II, 765-831.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1996 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 13. cildinde, 297-300 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.