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GAZÂ Skip to content Özellikle Osmanlılar’da din için yapılan savaşı ifade eden ve bir fetih ideolojisi haline gelen terim.
Eski sözlüklerde dar anlamda “düşmanla savaşma” şeklinde tarif edilen kelime (Tekin, TUBA , XIII [1989], s. 140), Osmanlı Beyliği’nin ortaya çıktığı XIII. yüzyıl sonları ile XIV. yüzyıl başlarında Anadolu uç boylarında yaşanan çatışmalarda, Türkmen beylikleri ve derviş toplulukları arasında çok defa hem bir motivasyon hem de bir meşruiyet unsuru olarak kullanılmış; İslâmiyet’i yaymak, müslümanların yönetimindeki toprakları yahut nüfuz alanını genişletmek gibi gayretler uğrunda akınlara katılmak ve “cenk etmek” anlamını kazanmıştır. Ortaçağ müslüman toplulukları arasında kullanımı çok daha eskilere giden bu kavramın Anadolu’da nasıl yayıldığı ve Türk dilinde kahramanlık ifade eden alplik ile örtüşmeye ne zaman başladığı tam olarak bilinmemekte, ancak XIII. yüzyılın sonlarında Anadolu’nun batı ve kuzeybatısında kullanılmakta olduğu kesin olarak tesbit edilebilmektedir.
Gazâ ruhunun Osmanlı Devleti’nin yükselişinde oynadığı rol konusu, Paul Wittek’in 1938’de yayımladığı eserinden bu yana modern tarih yazıcılığında önemli bir yer tutmuştur. Wittek’in “gazâ tezi”, yani Osmanlılar’ın askerî ve siyasî başarılarını cihadla özdeşleştirdiği ve “kutsal savaş” (holy war) diye çevirdiği gazâ anlayışına hamleden tez, M. Fuad Köprülü’nün gazâ ile başka unsurları dengeleyen, demografik faktörleri ve sosyolojik yapıları Wittek’ten çok daha ayrıntılı olarak ele alan fikirlerinin yaygın olarak bilindiği Türkiye’nin dışındaki dünya tarihi literatüründe uzun süre büyük bir kabul görmüştür. Öte yandan kelimenin ve içerdiği kavramın beylik devrinin anlayışını yansıtmadığı, XV. yüzyıldan itibaren çok daha yerleşik ve düzenli bir toplum hayatına geçen Osmanlılar’ın atalarını yüceltmek, onların akın ve yağma faaliyetlerini din uğruna kahramanlık özelliğiyle süslemek için geriye dönük olarak böyle bir açıklama getirdikleri, Osmanlı tarihlerinde ilk beylere gazilik atfedilmesinin edebî ve ideolojik bir motif olarak anlaşılması gerektiği iddia edilmiştir. Hatta gazâ ve gazi kelimelerinin XV. yüzyıldan önce Anadolu’da yaygın olarak kullanılmadığı, kullanıldığı kadarıyla da pek yüce/kutsî bir anlam taşımadığı öne sürülmüştür (a.mlf., TT , XIX/109, s. 9-18). Gerçekten, doğrudan Osmanlılar’la ilgili ve otantikliği tartışmasız kaynaklarda, Ahmedî’nin XV. yüzyıl başlarında kaleme aldığı İskendernâme ’ye kadar gazâ kavramına rastlanmaz. Wittek’in XIV. yüzyıla ait bir delil olarak zikrettiği Bursa kitâbesinin, üzerinde yer alan 1337 tarihinde yazılmış olduğuna kesin gözle bakılamayacağı, bunun sonradan yazıldığı ve binanın ilk yapım tarihinin oradan başlatıldığı ileri sürülmektedir (a.g.e. , XIX/109, s. 73-80). Bu husus doğru olmakla birlikte, XIII ve XIV. yüzyıl Anadolu’sunun kaynaklarında, Osmanlılar’la komşuluğu ve gerek dost gerekse rakip olarak yakın ilişkileri iyi bilinen beyliklere ait eserlerde gazâ kelimesine ve türevlerine sıkça rastlanır. Dolayısıyla Osmanlılar’ın da Anadolu’nun geri kalan kesimlerinde yaşayan Türk boylarının ve beylerinin kültür hayatından tamamen habersiz ya da farklı bir kültüre sahip olmadığı düşünülürse bu kavramın bilindiği söylenebilir. Nitekim Osman Bey’den söz eden en eski yazılı kaynağın müellifi olması dolayısıyla üzerinde durulması gereken Bizanslı tarihçi Pachymeres, Osmanlı Devleti’nin kurucusunun Bizans imparatorluk askerleriyle ilk çatışması olarak tasvir ettiği Koyunhisar (Bapheus) savaşına (1301) Batı Anadolu’nun çeşitli yörelerinden, özellikle Menderes havzasından ve Kastamonu’dan Türkmen savaşçıların katıldığını belirtir. Aynı seferde Osman Bey’in yanında yer alan Amourios’un Çobanoğulları’ndan Ali Bey olması gerektiği de ortaya konmuştur (Zachariadou, III [1977], s. 57-70). Çobanoğulları için XIII. yüzyıl sonlarında kaleme aldığı inşâ risâlelerinde Hûyî, sipah emîrleri için kullanılacak unvanlar arasında “nusretü’l-guzât”ı da sayar. Osman Bey’in çağdaşlarından Sinop beyinin adı Gazi Çelebi olarak geçer. Orhan Bey ile Trakya’da sefere çıkan Aydınoğulları’nın daha 1312’de Birgi’de inşa ettirdikleri ulucaminin kitâbesinde Mehmed Bey’den “el-emîrü’l-kebîr el-gāzî” diye söz edilir. Ayrıca Osmanlı beyliğinin doğduğu Söğüt’e ve Osman Bey’in ilk fetihlerinden Karacahisar’a çok yakın olan Seyyid Gazi Türbesi’nin daha XII. yüzyıl sonlarında bir ziyaretgâh olduğunu Arap seyyah Herevî bildirir (kaynaklar ve başka örnekler için bk. Emecen, s. 194-197; Kafadar, s. 76-78, 169). Bir yoruma göre Kuzeybatı Anadolu’da gazâ anlayışının canlanmasında, 1299’da Altın Orda Devleti’nde yaşanan değişiklikler dolayısıyla İslâm ülkesi olmaktan çıkan Tuna yörelerinden aşiret ve ailelerin Marmara’nın güneyine doğru göçmesinin katkıları da rol oynamıştır (Togan, s. 333).
Gazâ kelimesinin ne kadar yaygın olduğu bir yana bu kelimenin barındırdığı kavrama yakın düşen dinî motifler, Osmanlılar dahil çeşitli beyliklerin siyaset söylemlerinde erkenden kendilerini gösterirler. Nitekim eldeki en eski Osmanlı vesikalarından 1324 tarihli bir belgede Orhan Bey’in adının yanı sıra “Şücâüddin”, babası Osman Bey’in adıyla birlikte de “Fahreddin” lakapları kullanılır. Kendisine Şücâüddin diye hitap edilen bir beyin, o devirde Anadolu’nun diğer uç boylarında faaliyet gösteren çeşitli zümreler arasında yayılmış olan gazâ fikrine ilgisiz kalmış olması düşünülemez. Şücâüddin lakabını Orhan Bey’in çağdaşı beylerden en az dördünün daha kullanması da (Kafadar, s. 61) birtakım kültürel motiflerin ve siyasî iddiaların yaygın bir şekilde paylaşıldığını gösterir.
Gerek Osmanoğulları’nın gerekse diğer beyliklerin civarlarındaki hıristiyan nüfus ile, hatta askerî-siyasî güç sahibi tekfurlarla ya da Bizans imparatoruyla komşuluk ilişkileri sürdürmüş olmaları, çeşitli anlaşmalarla zaman zaman ortak hareket etmeleri, ticarî alışveriş ve kültürel etkileşim ilişkilerine girmeleri gazâ fikrinin yokluğuna delâlet etmez. “Müdârâ” ve “istimâlet”, Ortaçağ müslüman devletlerinin yakından tanıdığı kavramlardır. Bu kavramları bilmemiş yahut ayrıntılarını kavrayamamış olsalar dahi uç beylerinin ve savaşçıların gazâyı “kâfirlerle sürekli ve kıyasıya kutsal savaş” şeklinde anlamadıklarından, bu kavramı devirlerinin tarihî ve sosyolojik şartları içinde hayata geçirdiklerinden şüphe edilemez. Komşuluk ve dostluk, gerek öz anlamlarında gerekse taktik olarak bu ortamda müslümanlarla hıristiyanlar arasındaki ilişkilere önemli çapta yansımıştır. Meselâ 1323 yılında Alaşehir’i kuşatan Türkler’in, şehrin hâkimi Philanthropenos’un daha önce göstermiş olduğu dostluk ve şecaatten dolayı kuşatmayı kaldırdıkları bir Bizans kaynağında anlatılır (Laiou, s. 292). Esasen bu tür ilişkiler, gazâyı ve gazileri yüceltmek üzere kaleme alınmış Dânişmendnâme , Battalnâme , Saltuknâme gibi destansı kaynaklarda açıkça anlatılır. Nitekim Aydınoğlu Umur Bey’in mücadelelerini hikâye eden Enverî Düstûrnâme ’de, Umur Bey’in Kantakuzenos ile ortak faaliyet için anlaştığında bu Bizanslı devlet adamı ile görüşüp kardeş olduğunu yazar (s. 84-85). Gazâ anlayışı bu tür ilişkileri dışlasaydı o anlayışın temsilcilerini idealize etmek üzere Düstûrnâme ’yi kaleme alan Enverî, Umur Bey’le Bizans imparatorunun kardeş olmasını aktarmama yoluna gidebilirdi.
Gazâ kavramının Osmanlı Beyliği için Wittek’in iddia ettiği gibi neredeyse yegâne var oluş sebebi ve savaşçılar için tek motivasyon unsuru olduğu söylenemese de beyliğin fütuhat yoluyla büyümesindeki önemli faktörlerden birini teşkil ettiği kesindir. Bununla birlikte gazilerin, sadece ve her an din uğrunda çarpışmayı düşünen gerçek dışı kişilikler olarak çizilmesi de yanlış olur; siyasî ihtirasların Anadolu ve Rumeli gazi zümreleri arasında da önemli bir rol oynadığını (meselâ Sasa Bey ile Aydınoğlu Mehmed Bey’in veya bazı rivayetlere göre Hacı İlbey ile Osmanoğlu Murad Bey’in birbirine ters düşmesi; Kafadar, s. 70, 116-117), gazâya katılanların (Âşıkpaşazâde gibi derviş olanlar dahil) aynı zamanda esir ve ganimet yani maddî kazanç peşinde koştuklarını göz ardı etmemek gerekir (İnalcık, IJTS , II [1980], s. 71-79). Nitekim XIV. yüzyılın birinci yarısında Karesi Beyliği’nde kaleme alındığı tahmin edilen ve “Gazilik Tarîkası” adlı bölümüyle konumuz açısından büyük önem taşıyan bir ilmihal kitabında gazilik en helâl kazanç yolu olarak, fakat aynı zamanda ticaret, ekincilik gibi kazanç mertebelerinden biri olarak sayılmıştır (Tekin, WZKM , LXXVI [1986], s. 286).
İstanbul’un fethinden sonra merkeziyetçiliğin daha gelişkin bir biçimiyle tesisi meyanında teşrifat ve teşkilât sahalarında gerçekleştirilen yenilikler arasında uç boylarındaki akıncı faaliyetleri de daha sıkı bir kontrol altına alınmış, buna bağlı olarak geçmiş günlerin serbest gazâ ruhunu temsil eden gelenekler ve anlayışlar eski önemini kısmen yitirmiştir. Meselâ Neşrî, Fâtih Sultan Mehmed’in eski gazi geleneklerinde olduğu gibi nevbet vurulurken sultanların ayağa kalkması âdetini kaldırdığını yazar (Cihannümâ , I, 32). Burada söz konusu olan gazâ ilkesinin terkedilmesi değil, İstanbul’un fethiyle birlikte bir cihan devleti kimliğini inşa etme yoluna giren Osmanlı yöneticilerinin, bu kimliği yoğuracakları siyasî mirasın değişik unsurlarını gözden geçirme sürecinde yeni bir sıralamaya gitmeleridir. Bu bağlamda Osmanoğulları’nın ilk dönemlerine ait rivayetler yazıya geçirilirken bazı kaynaklar, yer yer gazi zümrelerinin ve onlarla bağlantılı dervişlerin merkezîleşmeye karşı muhalefetini dile getirmiştir (meselâ bk. Tevârîh-i Âl-i Osmân ; Vilâyetnâme-i Seyyid Ali Sultan ). Bu dönemde siyasî iddiaları belirginleşmeye başlayan Safevîler’in, bilhassa Kafkasya’nın müslüman olmayan bölgelerine yönelttikleri akın ve seferlere gazâ, bunlara katılan savaşçılara da gazi dedikleri, bu seferler için Anadolu’dan da gönüllü topladıkları dikkati çeker.
Bir cihan devletinin oluşmasıyla birlikte gazâ kavramının gözden düştüğü söylenemez; ancak düzenli devlet ordusunun faaliyetlerini anlatan eserlerde erken kaynaklara göre merkezî konumunu yitirmiştir. Yine de Osmanlılar’ın çeşitli savaşlarını anlatan eserlere “gazavatnâme” adı verilmesi, bazı sultanlara askerî başarıları bağlamında ve bilhassa kahramanlıklarıyla bilinen kumandanlara “gazi” diye hitap edilmesi geleneği sürdürülmüştür. Serhad boylarının askerlerine de gazi denilmeye devam edilmiştir. XVII. yüzyıldan Tımışvarlı Gazi Âşık Hasan adlı asker ve derviş saz şairinin bir türküsünde kelime şöyle geçer: “Gaziler başına takıp çelengi / Kırardı Nemçe’yi, Macar Frengi / Neylesin kulların edemez cengi / Hâl ü hatırları sorulmayınca.” Zaman içinde gazi kelimesinin anlamı kısmen değişmiş, devletin parçalanması sürecinde Gazi Osman Paşa ve Gazi Mustafa Kemal örneklerinde görüldüğü gibi daha çok vatanı savunan kahraman, ya da İstiklâl Savaşı gazileri örneğindeki gibi vatan savunmasına katılanlar anlamında kullanımı XX. yüzyıla kadar sürmüştür (ayrıca bk. GAZİ ; GAZVE ).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
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C. Imber, The Ottoman Empire 1300-1481 , İstanbul 1990, giriş yazısı.
a.mlf., “The Legend of Osman Gazi”, The Ottoman Emirate: 1300-1389 (ed. E. Zachariadou), Resmo 1993, s. 67-76.
a.mlf., “Paul Wittek’s ‘De la défaite d’Ankara à la prise de Constantinople’”, Osm.Ar. , V (1986), s. 65-81.
a.mlf., “The Ottoman Dynastic Myth”, Turcica , XIX, Paris 1987, s. 7-27.
Cemal Kafadar, Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State , Berkeley 1995, tür.yer.
Feridun M. Emecen, “Gazâya Dâir XIV. Yüzyıl Kaynakları Arasında Bir Gezinti”, Prof. Dr. Hakkı Dursun Yıldız Armağanı , Ankara 1995, s. 191-197.
Elizabeth Zachariadou, “Pachymeres on the ‘Amourioi’ of Kastamonu”, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies , III, Birmingham 1977, s. 57-70.
Gyula Káldy-Nagy, “The Holy War (jihad) in the First Centuries of the Ottoman Empire”, Journal of Ukrainian Studies , III/4, Edmonton 1979-80, s. 467-473.
Ronald Jennings, “Some Thoughts on the Gazi-Thesis”, WZKM , LXXVI (1986), s. 151-161.
Şinasi Tekin, “XIV üncü Yüzyıla Ait Bir İlm-i Hal: Risaletü’l-İslâm”, a.e. , LXXV (1986), s. 279-292.
a.mlf., “XIV. Yüzyılda Yazılmış Gazilik Tarikası «Gaziliğin Yolları» Adlı Bir Eski Anadolu Türkçesi Metni ve Gazâ/Cihad Kavramları Hakkında”, TUBA , XIII (1989), s. 139-204.
a.mlf., “Türk Dünyasında Gazâ ve Cihâd Kavramları Üzerine Düşünceler”, TT , XIX/109 (1993), s. 9-18; XIX/110 (1993), s. 73-80.
Bu madde TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1996 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 13. cildinde, 427-429 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.