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GÜMÜŞ Skip to content Tarih boyunca daha ziyade para ve ziynet eşyası yapımında kullanılan değerli bir maden.
1/2 Müellif: DİA Bölüme Git
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2/2 Müellif: OSMAN ESKİCİOĞLU Bölüme Git
FIKIH. Gümüş Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de kıymetli maden ve ziynet eşyası olarak (fıdda) altı yerde, para birimi olarak da (dirhem, variḳ) olarak da iki yerde ge…
Kendine mahsus kirli beyaz bir rengi olup kolay işlenebilecek niteliktedir. Eski çağlardan beri daha çok madenî para kesiminde, fazla yumuşak oluşundan dolayı kuyumculukta ve dekoratif eşya imalinde önemli bir yeri olan gümüş İslâm toplumlarında da çok geniş kullanım alanları bulmuştur. İslâm dininin ortaya çıkışı sıralarında İran ve Bizans’la ticaret yapan Kureyş tâcirleri, Bizans’ın altın dinarlarından başka sadece gümüş para basan İran’ın dirhemlerini de kullanıyorlardı. Zengin gümüş yataklarına sahip olan İran gümüş dirhemleriyle daha çok ipek, baharat vb. değerli şeyleri satın alıyordu. Sâsânîler’den başka Suriye’de ve Mısır’da altın para basma geleneğinin yanında gümüş dirhemlerin darbedildiği de bilinmektedir. Emevî Halifesi Abdülmelik b. Mervân ilk İslâm dirhemini darbettirmiştir. Daha sonra kurulan İslâm devletlerinde altın dinardan başka gümüş dirhemler basılarak İslâmî bimetalist geleneği yaşatılmıştır (bk. DİRHEM ). Gümüş ayrıştırılarak kimya ve tıp alanında çeşitli amaçlarla da kullanılmıştır.
İslâm dünyasının büyük ölçüde gümüş üreten bölgeleri, antik dünyadan kalan coğrafî alanlar olup bunların başında Orta İspanya geliyordu. Ayrıca İrmîniye, Kuzey İran ve Orta Asya çok önemli gümüş yataklarına sahipti. Kâbil dağları ve Fergana’nın kuzeyindeki topraklar da iki büyük gümüş merkeziydi. Bu bölgeler müslümanların darphânelerini besliyor ve aralıksız olarak dirhem basılıyordu. Abbâsîler devrinde Fars, Horasan ve Kirman bölgelerindeki galen cevherlerinden gümüş elde edildiği, ancak V. (XI.) yüzyıldan sonra İslâm dünyasında bir gümüş kıtlığı baş gösterdiği ve gümüş eserlerden çoğunun dirhem basılmak üzere eritildiği bilinmektedir. VI. (XII.) yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren gümüş daha çok ziynet eşyası yapımında, tunç ve pirinç eserlerin kakma tekniğiyle süslenmesi ve tunç aynaların yaldızlanmasında kullanılmıştır. Ayrıca gümüşten tabak, tepsi, tas ve ibrik gibi kaplar imal ediliyordu. İslâmî devirdeki maden sanatı ustaları gümüşü diledikleri şekilde saf olarak veya bilinçli gümüş alaşımları yaparak kullanmışlardır. Ortaçağ’da altınla uğraşan sanat erbabının simgesi güneş, gümüşle meşgul olanlarınki ay, bakırcılarınki ise çiçekti (Hârizmî, s. 147). Erken İslâmî dönem tabak, tepsi ve tasları formları ve teknikleri, süsleme konuları ve motifleri bakımından Sâsânî devri örnekleriyle yakın benzerlikler göstermektedir. Hemdânî (ö. 334/945), altın ve gümüş madenlerinin çıkarılması ve değişik amaçlarla kullanılmasıyla ilgili teknik bilgileri ihtiva eden Kitâbü’l-Cevhereteyni’l-ʿatîḳateyni’l-mâʾiʿateyn mine’ṣ-ṣafrâʾ ve’l-beyżâʾ adlı bir eser yazmıştır.
İlk gümüş tasfiyesinin Anadolu’da yapıldığı tahmin edilmektedir. Selçuklular zamanında Anadolu’da Luluva (Ulukışla), Gümüşhane, Gümüşhacıköy, Kayseri’ye bağlı Sarız (Sarus) ve Kütahya yakınlarındaki Gümüşşar’da (Gümüşşehir) gümüş madeni çıkarılmaktaydı. Meşhur seyyah İbn Battûta Medînetügümüş’ü (Gümüşhacıköy) ziyaret ettiğini, Iraklı ve Suriyeli tüccarların gelip gittiği bu şehirde gümüş madeni bulunduğunu kaydeder (er-Riḥle , s. 298). Coğrafyacı İbn Fazlullah el-Ömerî de Moğollar’ın Anadolu’da bulunan Gümüşhane ve Gümüşhacıköy’de 733 (1332-33) yılına kadar gümüş madenlerini işletmeye devam ettiklerini söyler (Mesâlikü’l-ebsâr , s. 182, 188, 191).
Osmanlılar’da gümüş, para basımı yanında sanayide, kuyumculukta, simkeşlik ve dokumacılık alanlarında kullanılan önemli bir madendi. İlk Osmanlı sikkesi ve Osmanlı para birimi olan akçenin gümüşten kesildiği bilinmektedir.
Osmanlı gümüş sikkesinin bol miktarda bulunuşu, değeri ve yayılışı, kuruluş yıllarından itibaren bölgedeki diğer Türkmen beylikleri üzerindeki hâkimiyet iddialarında ekonomik imaj açısından önemli bir rol oynamıştır. Osmanlılar’ın Balkanlar’a geçişinden sonra bu bölgelerdeki zengin gümüş merkezlerine yönelik faaliyetleri ve buraları ellerine geçirmeleri iktisadî güçlerini daha da arttırmıştır. Fakat zamanla akçenin içindeki gümüş oranı ekonomik sebepler yüzünden düşürülmüştür.
Fâtih Sultan Mehmed zamanında gümüş akçeler hazine mevcudunun yüzde yetmişine yakın bir bölümünü teşkil etmekteydi. Osmanlılar’ın bimetalizmi benimsedikleri tarihten XVI. yüzyılın son çeyreğine kadar geçen dönemde tedavül genellikle akçe ile oluyordu. Gümüş madeninin kıt olduğu özellikle savaş zamanlarında gümüş ve kıymetli maden ihracı, simli kumaş dokuma işi ve gümüşten eşya yapımı yasaklanır, hatta bazan simkeşhânelerin kapatılmasına kadar gidilebilirdi. Bu işle “gümüş yasakçıları” veya sadece “yasakçı” denilen kimseler görevlendirilirdi. XVIII. yüzyılda sayıları sınırlı tutulan simkeş esnafının Gümüşhane ve Espiye madenlerinden günde 1 okka olan gümüş tahsisatları 266 gün hesabıyla darphâne tarafından sağlanıyordu. Simkeş ustaları, senenin geri kalan günlerinde gümüş ihtiyaçlarını kendileri temin etmeye çalışırdı. Bu durumda simkeşhâne 366 okka (yaklaşık yarım ton) gümüş tel çekiyordu. Gerek sanayi kuruluşları gerekse darphâneler ham maddelerini gümüş üreten maden ocaklarından, piyasadaki kullanılmış gümüşten, yerli ve yabancı gümüş sikkelerden sağlardı. XVI. yüzyılda ticaret için gelen yabancı tâcirlerin gümüş ve altın paralarını darphânelere götürüp yerli paraya çevirmeleri istenirdi. Ancak daha sonra kapitülasyonlara konulan bir madde ile, imtiyaz verilen devlet tâcirlerinin buna zorlanamayacağı karara bağlanmıştı. Tahta geçen padişah selefinin gümüş paralarını yasaklayarak tedavülden kaldırırdı. Eski paralar darphânelere yollanır ve yeni padişah adına yeniden paraya çevrilirdi.
Osmanlı Devleti sınırları içinde birçok yerde gümüş madeni çıkarılırdı. Rumeli yakasında Moldova, Atina, Halkidiye, Kreşevo, Kratovo, Sreberniçe, Novoberda, Breznik ve Semendire’de; Anadolu yakasında ise en çok Gümüşhane, Balya, Bozkır, Keban ve Ergani gibi yerlerde gümüş madeni çıkarılır ve işletilirdi. Hemen her büyük maden ocağının yanında bir darphâne çalışırdı. Bazı maden ocaklarından İstanbul’a sevkedilen gümüşlerin izlediği yolu, ocaklara uzaklığına göre belli başlı şehirlerde alımları için konulan narh fiyatlarından anlamak mümkündür (Ḳānūnnāme-i Sulṭānī , s. 23).
Altın ve gümüş gibi maden ocaklarının işletilmesi büyük bir teşkilât işiydi. Devlet maden işletilen yerler halkını madenci, kömürcü, tomrukçu, nakliyeci statüsünde kabul ederek tekâlîf-i örfiyyeden muaf tutardı. Osmanlı Devleti’nde gümüş ocakları öteki maden ocakları gibi iltizama verilerek işletilirdi. Ocaklarda elde edilen ve “simli kurşun” denilen maden eritilerek kurşunundan ve varsa altınından ayrılırdı. XVI. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren Amerika’da keşfedilen zengin gümüş yataklarından elde edilen külçeler, bunlardan basılan para ve değerli eşya giderek bütün Akdeniz bölgesine yayıldı. Özellikle Osmanlı ülkesine bol miktarda gümüş girdi. Bu durum, bütün Avrupa piyasasını olduğu kadar Osmanlı piyasasını da derinden etkiledi, iktisadî sıkıntılara yol açtı. Ayrıca Osmanlı madenlerinin üretim maliyetinin yüksek oluşu gümüş madeni ocaklarının, hatta darphânelerin uzunca bir süre kapanmasına sebep oldu. Bu ocakların ancak XVIII. yüzyılda yeniden açılması yolunda çalışmalar yapıldı. Zamanla gümüş, para olarak darbedilme özelliğini kaybeden bir maden haline geldi.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Hemdânî, Kitâbü’l-Cevhereteyni’l-ʿatîḳateyni’l-mâʾiʿateyni mine’ṣ-ṣafrâʾ ve’l-beyżâʾ (nşr. ve trc. Ch. Toll), Uppsala 1968.
Hârizmî, Mefâtîḥu’l-ʿulûm , Kahire 1342/1923, s. 147-150.
Makrîzî, en-Nuḳūdü’l-İslâmiyye (nşr. M. Ali Bahrülulûm), Necef 1387/1967, tür.yer.
İbn Fazlullah el-Ömerî, Mesâlikü’l-ebsâr: Rum Diyarındaki Türklerin Ellerinde Bulundurdukları Ülkeler (trc. Yaşar Yücel, Çoban-oğulları Candar-oğulları Beylikleri içinde), Ankara 1980, s. 182, 188, 191.
İbn Battûta, er-Riḥle , Beyrut, ts. (Dâru Sâdır), s. 298.
Ḳānūnnāme-i Sulṭānī ber Mūceb-i ʿÖrf-i ʿOsmānī (nşr. R. Anhegger – Halil İnalcık), Ankara 1956, tür.yer.
Selânikî, Târih (İpşirli) , I-II, tür.yer.
Defterdar Sarı Mehmed Paşa, Zübde-i Vekayiât (haz. Abdülkadir Özcan), Ankara 1995, s. 609, 720.
R. Anhegger, Beitraege zur Geschichte des Bergbaus im Osmanischen Reich, I Europäische Turkei , İstanbul 1943, s. 155-162.
Ülker Erginsoy, İslâm Maden Sanatının Gelişmesi , İstanbul 1978, s. 10.
Saad al-Sadir, Arab and Islamic Silver , London 1981.
M. Lombard, İlk Zafer Yıllarında İslâm (trc. Nezih Uzel), İstanbul 1983, s. 104-108, 164 vd.
F. Braudel, Akdeniz ve Akdeniz Dünyası (trc. Mehmet Ali Kılıçbay), İstanbul 1989, I, 320-336.
Himmet Taşkömür, Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Simkeşlik ve Tel Çekme: XV-XIX yy. (yüksek lisans tezi, 1990), İÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, s. 90-94.
M. Said Polat, Anadolu Selçuklularında Ticarî Hayat (yüksek lisans tezi, 1992), MÜ Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü, s. 22.
Fulya Eruz, Konuşan Maden, Tombak ve Gümüş Madeni Eserler Koleksiyonu , İstanbul 1993, s. 110-157.
D. M. Dunlop, “Sources of Gold and Silver in Islam According to al-Hamdānī”, St.I , VIII (1957), s. 29-49.
Halil Sahillioğlu, “Osmanlı Para Tarihinde Dünya Para ve Maden Hareketlerinin Yeri (1300-1750)”, Türkiye İktisat Tarihi Üzerine Araştırmalar: Gelişme Dergisi 1978 Özel Sayısı , Ankara 1979, s. 1 vd.
a.mlf., “Akçe”, DİA , II, 224-227.
a.mlf., “Altın”, a.e. , II, 533-535.
Faruk Sümer, “Selçuklular Devrinde Türkiye’de Madenler”, TAD , IV (1989), s. 162-163.
A. S. Ehrenkreutz, “Fiḍḍa”, EI2 (İng.) , II, 883.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1996 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 14. cildinde, 270-271 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.
FIKIH. Gümüş Kur’ân-ı Kerîm’de kıymetli maden ve ziynet eşyası olarak (fıdda) altı yerde, para birimi olarak da (dirhem, variḳ) olarak da iki yerde geçmekle birlikte gümüşle ilgili herhangi bir hukukî hükümden bahsedilmez. Bazı âyetlerde insanların altına ve gümüşe aşırı düşkünlüğü, ancak bunların dünya hayatının geçici menfaatleri olduğu (Âl-i İmrân 3/14), altın ve gümüşü biriktirip de onu Allah yolunda harcamayanların elem verici bir azaba uğrayacakları (et-Tevbe 9/34), dünyada tavanları ve merdivenleri, kapı ve koltukları gümüşten olan evlere sahip olmanın bu hayatın geçici nimetleri olmaktan öte bir anlam ve değerinin bulunmadığı (ez-Zuhruf 43/33-34) bildirilir. Diğer bazı âyetlerde ise iyi kullar için cennette gümüş kaplar, gümüş işlemeli kâseler, gümüş bileziklerden söz edilerek (el-İnsân 76/15-16, 21) dünyada insanların bildiklerinden hareketle âhiret hayatı tasvir edilmektedir. Yine Kur’an’da Hz. Yûsuf ve Ashâb-ı Kehf kıssaları anlatılırken gümüş para kullanımından bahsedilir (Yûsuf 12/20; el-Kehf 18/19). Hadislerde, değerli maden ve süs eşyası olarak gümüşün yer almasının yanı sıra bu madenin çeşitli maksatlarla kullanımının dinî-hukukî hükmü, gümüşle yapılan ticarî işlemlerin faizle bağlantısı veya gümüşün zekâtı gibi şer‘î konularda da birtakım açıklamaların yapıldığı ve bu ikinci grup hadislerin bir hayli fazla olduğu görülür (bk. Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “fḍḍ” md.). Bu hadisler, gümüşle ilgili olarak İslâm hukuk literatüründe yer alan görüş ve tartışmaların da kaynağını ve ana malzemesini teşkil etmiştir.
İslâm hukukunda gümüş, özellikle hadislerde ele alınış tarzına bağlı kalınarak para olması, zekâta tâbi tutulması ve günlük hayatta kullanılmasının câiz olup olmaması açısından ele alınmış ve çok yerde altınla birlikte diğer madenlerden farklı hükümlere tâbi tutulmuştur. Altınla gümüşün temel özelliğinin para birimi (semeniyyet) olarak kullanılmaları olduğu konusunda klasik dönem İslâm hukukçuları arasında görüş birliği vardır. Onların bu kanaati, gümüşün de altın gibi paslanmaz, yumuşak ve küçük parçalara bölünebilir olması sebebiyle para birimi olmaya elverişliliği ve değeri kendi ağırlığıyla ölçülen kıymetli bir maden oluşunun yanı sıra insanların bu yöndeki ortak kabul ve uygulamasına da dayanır. Altın ve gümüşün para olma özelliği veya para deyince akla bu iki madenin gelmesi dolayısıyladır ki altın ve gümüş hem borç faizinin hem de alışveriş faizinin cereyan ettiği malların başında yer almış, meselâ hadiste gümüşün gümüşle ancak eşit ağırlıkta ve peşin olarak değişimine müsaade edilmiştir (Buhârî, “Büyûʿ”, 74-82; Müslim, “Müsâḳāt”, 81; Tirmizî, “Büyûʿ”, 23).
Hem bu hadisin hem de faizin illetinin ne olabileceği konusunda İslâm hukuk doktrininde yer alan görüşlerin sonucu olarak gümüşle gümüşün (veya altınla altının) peşin mübadelesinde herhangi bir fazlalık faiz sayılırken altınla gümüş arasındaki peşin mübadelede miktarların farklı olmasının faiz sayılmayacağı ifade edilmiş, vadeli mübadelede ise bedeller ister aynı cinsten ister ayrı cinsten, ister eşit isterse farklı olsun faizin cereyan edeceği, sadece ödünç akdinde bedellerin eşit olması şartıyla faizin söz konusu olmayacağı görüşü benimsenmiştir (bk. FAİZ ).
Altın ve gümüşün ev eşyası ve süs eşyası olarak çeşitli maksatlarla kullanılması konusunda getirilen sınırlamalar ve bu iki madenin kullanımının zaruri ihtiyaçlara ve istisnaî durumlara bağlanması, temelde altın ve gümüşün toplumda para olarak kabul görmesi ve iktisadî hayatın vazgeçilmez bir tedavül vasıtası olmasıyla açıklanabilir. İslâm hukuk doktrininde diş doldurma ve kaplama gibi zaruri bir ihtiyaç bulunduğunda veya kadınlar için ziynet olarak altın ve gümüşün kullanılması meşrû görülmüş, erkeklerin gümüşten mâmul yüzük ve mühür gibi eşyaları kullanması da altının aksine mubah kabul edilmiştir. Fakihler, Hz. Peygamber’in altın ve gümüş kaptan yiyip içmeyi, ipek giymeyi ve ipek sergi üzerinde oturmayı yasaklayan hadisinden (Buhârî, “Eşribe”, 28, “Eṭʿime”, 29; Müslim, “Libâs”, 4, 5) ve aynı paraleldeki diğer hadislerden hareketle gümüş kaplardan yeme içmenin, diğer bir ifadeyle gümüşten yapılmış tabak, kaşık, bıçak gibi ev eşyasının kullanımının kadın erkek ayırımı yapılmaksızın haram olduğu görüşündedir. Yine fakihlerin çoğunluğu kap kacak, bardak gibi gümüş eşyanın evde bulundurulmasını da câiz görmezken bazı âlimler, diğer gümüş süs eşyası gibi bunları da bulundurmakta mahzur görmemişlerdir. Ayrıca mushaf, kılıç, bıçak vb. eşyanın gümüşle süslenmesi câiz görülmüş, gümüş kakma veya gümüş suyuna batırılmış kapların kullanılmasının câiz olup olmadığı konusunda ise farklı görüşler ileri sürülmüştür. Genel olarak Hanefîler bunu câiz sayarken diğerleri gümüşün az miktarda veya ihtiyaç sebebiyle kullanılması halinde câiz olacağı yönünde görüş belirtmişlerdir. Öyle anlaşılıyor ki altın gibi gümüşün de kullanımına bazı sınırlamalar getirilmesi iktisadî hayata kaynak ve canlılık sağlamak, insanları lüks ve ihtişamdan uzak tutmak, sosyal sınıflar arasındaki dengeyi ve huzuru korumak gibi çeşitli mülâhazaların ürünüdür.
Gümüşten zekât alınacağı hususu kitap, sünnet ve icmâ ile sabittir. Altın ve gümüşü, zekâtını vermeyerek biriktirip yığanların azaba çarptırılacağı âyet (et-Tevbe 9/34, 35) ve hadislerde (Buhârî, “Zekât”, 3; “Müslim”, “Zekât”, 24; Ebû Dâvûd, “Zekât”, 32) belirtilmiştir. Diğer madenlerden ancak ticaret malı oldukları zaman zekât alındığı halde altınla gümüş bu maksatla kullanılmasalar da zekâta tâbidir.
Altınla gümüşün nisablarını tayin için kıymetlerine değil ağırlıklarına bakılır. Gümüşten zekât verilmesi için onun nisab miktarı olan 200 dirhem ağırlığa ulaşması şarttır. Ağırlık birimi olarak 1 dirhemin metrik sistemde kaç grama tekabül ettiği konusunda uzmanlar arasında tam bir görüş birliği bulunmamakla birlikte (bk. DİRHEM ), 1 dirhemin meselâ 3,207 gram olduğundan hareket edilirse yaklaşık 640 gram gümüş zekât nisabı sayılır ve bunun 1/40 nisbetinde zekâtının verilmesi gerekir. Kadınların süs eşyası olarak kullandıkları gümüş ve altına zekât gerekip gerekmeyeceği hususu tartışmalıdır. Hanefîler’e, Sevrî ve Evzâî’ye göre takılardan zekât vermek gerekir. Mâlikî, Şâfiî ve Hanbelîler’e göre ise gerekmez (ayrıca bk. ALTIN ; ZEKÂT ).
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
Wensinck, el-Muʿcem , “fḍḍ” md.
Buhârî, “Büyûʿ“, 74-82, “Eşribe”, 28, “Eṭʿime”, 29, “Zekât”, 3.
Müslim, “Müsâḳāt”, 81, 84, “Libâs”, 4, 5, “Zekât”, 24.
Ebû Dâvûd, “Zekât”, 32.
Tirmizî, “Büyûʿ”, 23.
Mâlik b. Enes, el-Müdevvenetü’l-kübrâ , Kahire 1324, I, 245, 246.
Taberî, Câmiʿu’l-beyân , Kahire 1954, X, 118.
Cessâs, Aḥkâmü’l-Ḳurʾân , Beyrut, ts., II, 106.
Cezîrî, el-Meẕâhibü’l-erbaʿa (Kahire) , II, 15.
Serahsî, el-Mebsûṭ , II, 191, 192; XII, 115, 137.
Ebû Bekir İbnü’l-Arabî, Aḥkâmü’l-Ḳurʾân , II, 930; III, 1079.
Kâsânî, Bedâʾiʿ , Beyrut 1974, II, 16; V, 132.
Mergīnânî, el-Hidâye , Kahire 1937, IV, 58-61.
İbn Kudâme, el-Muġnî , Riyad 1981, I, 75-77; III, 3.
Kurtubî, el-Câmiʿ , VIII, 126.
Mevsılî, el-İḫtiyâr , I, 112.
İbn Nüceym, el-Baḥrü’r-râʾiḳ , VI, 143.
Şirbînî, el-İḳnâʿ (Büceyrimî, Tuḥfe içinde), I, 104.
İbn Âbidîn, Reddü’l-muḥtâr , Beyrut, ts., II, 34; IV, 42, 115.
Elmalılı, Hak Dini , III, 2520.
Hayreddin Karaman, Günlük Hayatımızda Helaller Haramlar , İstanbul 1979, s. 48, 54, 55.
Yûsuf el-Kardâvî, Fıḳhü’z-zekât , Beyrut 1981, I, 240-242.
A. S. Ehrenkreutz, “Fiḍḍa”, EI2 (İng.) , II, 883.
Mv.Fİ , I, 84-93.
Mv.F , I, 117-119; XXXII, 161-170.
Maddenin bu bölümü TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi’nin 1996 yılında İstanbul’da basılan 14. cildinde, 271-272 numaralı sayfalarda yer almıştır.